India Geology

MAJOR ROCK SYSTEMS OF INDIA

The Archaean Era

The Archaean Era:

• The earliest phase of tectonic evolution was marked by the cooling and solidification of the upper crust of the earth surface in the Archaean era (prior to 2.5 billion years) which is represented by the exposure of gneisses and granites especially on the Peninsula. These form the core of the Indian Craton.
• The term Archaean was introduced by J.D. Dana in 1872 to designate the geological formations older than the Cambrian period. The Geological succession of Archaean Era is as follows:
• It represents an enormous span of time. It is divided into two divisions as:

1. Archaean 2. Proterozoic

• The Archaean rocks were formed during the very early period when there was no life on the earth. They are mostly igneous origin. They are also comprising metamorphosed granitic and basaltic rocks together with some amount of sedimentary rocks.
• They consist of granitic rocks, gneisses, schist, greenstones, amphibolites and quartzite’s. Because of the fact that these rocks form the basements of all other formations, they are referred to as the Archaean Basement Complex of India.

1. Archaean formations

Before 2500

Geology of the western and eastern Dharwar Craton

The Archaean formations in the Indian Shield occupy most of the southern and eastern India and parts of Assam, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. These contain the following metamorphic rock formations:

The oldest to youngest are

a) Unclassified crystalline rocks

b) Charnockites

c) Khondalites and

d) Dharwar System of rocks

Dharwar system………19

• The bands of Schistose rocks of the Dharwar system contain the oldest known rocks in India, existing in Karnataka state. It is called as Dharwar system.
• The Dharwar system is divided into three divisions as lower, middle and upper Dharwars.
  • The Lower Dharwar contains Rhyolites, felsites, quartz porphyry rocks, Schists and gneisses.
  • The Middle Dharwar contains the Granite Prophyries, Basic and ultrabasic intrusive igneous rocks, volcanic products and banded ironstones.
  • The Upper Dharwar contains cherts, Ferruginous silts, clay, conglomerates and quartzites.

After Dharwar episode, there was a period of volcanic eruption and igneous intrusions containing granitic masses, charnockites, dykes and other rocks. There are also some unclassified crystalline rocks belong to this period.

These unclassified crystalline rocks are distributed over Tamil Nadu, parts of Kerala, Karnataka, parts of Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand, Assam, Meghalaya, Sikkim, parts of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.

Unclassified crystalline rocks………22

Charnockites…………21

The very distinct geological units belonging to this period are:

• The Champion Gneiss- including the Kolar Schist belt
• The Peninsular Gneiss of Mysore and Southern India
• The Charnockites, which are called as black granites, occurring in parts of northern Tamil Nadu, Nilgiri hills and Shevroy hills, southern Tamil Nadu extending upto Kannyakumari (cape comorin), Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats,
• The Closepet Granite of Mysore region containing gneisses and newer Granites
• The Gray and Pink Gneisses of Karimnagar and Warangal regions of Andhra Pradesh and Bellary region in Karnataka.
• The Granitic Gneisses of Nellore and Guntur regions of Andhra Pradesh.
• The Olivine rich magnesite bearing utrabasic rocks of Shevroy hills (or) chalk hills in Tamil nadu
• The Anorthosites of Salem, Tiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu
• The Alkali rocks of Sivamalai in Tamil Nadu and 10
• The Cordierite-sillimanite-rocks of Madurai & Thiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu, and parts of Thiruvananthapuram regions in Kerala.

The Eastern Ghats containing Archaean rocks called Khondalites exist in parts of

• Andhra Pradesh,
• Odisha,
• Jeypore-Bastar,
• Sambalpur,
• Raipur-drug,
• Bilaspur-Balaghat,
• Nagpur-Bhandara-Chhindwara Jabalpur,
• Vadodara,
• Bundelkhand,
• Singhbhum,
• Keonjhor sone valley,
• Midnapur area of Bengal,
• Assam Plateau comprising Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills.

Khondalites…….20

The Archaean rocks of Extra Peninsular region include -parts of

• • Northwest Himalayan regions
  • Spiti valley and Kumaon regions
  • Simla-Garhwal ranges
  • Nepal –Sikkim-Darjeeling belts, and
  • Bhutan and eastern Himalayan regions.

A good number of economic minerals including iron, copper, Diamond, Graphite, Chromite, etc., are explored from these formations. The Archaen systems are the world famous regions existing in India for all kinds of Precamrian research. It is followed by the Proterozoic era.

2. Proterozoic ERA

2500 to 570 million years

• Paleoproterozoic – 2,500 to 1,600 million years ago
• Mesoproterozoic – 1,600 million years ago – 1,000 million years ago
• Neoproterozoic – 1,000 million years ago – 541 (+/- 1) million years ago

2. PROTEROZOIC ERA

The period of Proterozoic geological formations of India range from 2500 to 570 million years.

The Proterozoic formations, in India, are also called as Purana Group of formations.

These are separated from the older Archaean formations by a distinct unconformity called as Eparchaean unconformity.

They are subdivided (from older to younger)as:

• Old Granites…………………18
• Cuddapah system……….……17
• Delhi system……………….……16
• Vindhyan System………………..….15
• Younger Granites and the………….14
• Malani Volcanics………………….……13

The Aravalli Range (15) is the remnant of an early Proterozoic orogen called the Aravali-Delhi orogen.

It extends approximately 500 kilometres from its northern end as isolated hills and rocky ridges into the Haryana region and end near Delhi.

Minor igneous intrusions, deformation (folding and faulting) and subsequent metamorphism of the Aravalli Mountains represent the main phase of orogenesis.

The erosion of the mountains, and further deformation of the sediments of the Dharwar group (Bijawars) marks the second phase. The volcanic activities and intrusions, associated with this second phase are recorded in composition of these sediments.

These are igneous and sedimentary formations, containing a lot of building -stones, Kaolin, iron, limestone and Uranium bearing rocks.

• The Proterozoic rocks are exposed in the Cuddapah (17) region of Andhra Pradesh.
• Older Granites (18) are seen in parts of Karnataka, northern parts of Andhra Pradesh, Southern parts of Odisha, and northern parts of Madhya Pradesh.

Cuddapah (17)

• After a long interval of time, the Cuddapah system of rocks consisting of slates, quartzite and limestones were laid down on the old denuded surface of the Deccan peninsula.
• These are found in the upper Mahanadi valley (Chhattisgarh basin), in the Aravallis (Delhi system) and in the Son valley.
• The Cuddapah System consist of Quartzites, Limestones, Sandstones and slates without any fossils.
• The thickness of the Cuddapah formation is about 6100 m.
• It is also seen in the Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh, southern parts of Chhattisgarh, Singhbhum district of Jharkhand, Kalahandi and Keonjhar district of Orissa and in Aravalli ranges extending from Delhi to Idar in Gujarat.
• The economic mineral resources of the Cuddapah system include iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, barites, asbestos, steatite and other minerals.

Equivalents of Cuddapahs and Delhi systems

• • Gwaliar System and Bijawar series are the two equivalents of Cuddapah system distributed in north India.
  • The Delhi system extends from Aravalli mountains to Ajmer and Mewar, to Idar and Palanpur in the south. Exposures could be seen from Mewar and Jodhpur regions. It is of 6000 m in thickness, consisting of Calc gneisses, calc-Schists, Phyllites, Quartzites and Arkose-grits. Well known rocks are the Erinpura Granites and Malani Igneous suites of rocks.

In the Extra Peninsular region, the equivalents of Cuddapahs and Delhi systems are seen in parts of the Himalayan region.

• The Dogra Slates of Kashmir,
• Attock Slates of Punjab,
• Chails and Simla slates of Simla hills, and
• Haimanta System of rocks in the Central Himalayas of Kumaon are all belonging to this system.

The Vindhyan System………12

• The Vindhyan System of India, derives its name from the great Vindhyan mountains.
• It consists of the most ancient sedimentary rocks. It is spread over an area of 100, 000 Sq.km.
• The Vindhyan system consists of Sandstones, shales and limestones, seen often over 4000 m in thickness.
• It is divided into two divisions as

a) Lower Vindhyan (which belong to the period between 1300 and 1100 million years) and

b) Upper Vindhyan (which belong to the period between 1000 and 600 million years).

• The upper Vindhyan beds enclose two diamond bearing horizons-at Panna and Golconda, areas.
• The Vindhyan rocks are devoid of metalliferous mineral deposits. But they are very good building stones, and ornamental stones. They contain very valuable glass making sands and gemstones.

3. THE PALAEOZOIC ERA

570 to 245 million years ago

…………11 Lower Gondwana &

…………12 Vindhyan

The Palaeozoic formations

• The Palaeozoic formations of India belong to the period from 570 to 245 million years.
• These are called as Dravidian systems, in India.
• Most of them are distributed over the Extra-Peninsular region, and are very little in the Peninsular shield.
• The Palaeozoic era of geological formations include the systems of the following geological ages:
• The Cambrian System
• The Silurian System
• The Devonian System
• The Lower Carboniferous System
• The Lower Gondwana system
• The Upper Carboniferous &
• The Permian systems.

The Cambrian System of India consists of the following formations:

a) The Salt Range containing the Salt Marl and Saline Series

b) The Spiti area containing the Haimanta System

c) The formations of Kashmir Valley.

The Cambrian period is the period in which plenty of fossil evidences have been obtained in India. These are seen in all geological formations from this period.

Corals, Foraminifers, sponges, echinoderms, worms, gastropods, pelecypods, trilobites and brachiopods are the notable fossil assemblages found in these beds.

They also indicated marine conditions in these Palaeozoic rocks in India. Salt marl, purple sandstone, shales, slates, dolomites and quartzites, are the notable rocks of this system.

• The Ordovician system is exposed in the Northern Kumaon-Shimla regions containing mainly shales.
• The Ordovician rocks of in Kashmir is exposed in the Lidar valley.
• The Silurian rocks are seen in Spiti region. They containg Red Crinoidal limestone of Griesbach and Zanskar Range. The Silurian rocks of Kashmir are exposed in the Lidar valley.
• The Devonian system of rocks are represented by the
• Muth Quartzites of Spiti, Kumaon and Kashmir.
• Limestones with brachiopods and corals that are exposed in these rocks.
• The Carboniferous system of rocks in India are distributed only in a few places in the Himalayan region in Kashmir. They contain fossiliferous limstones and shales. They are called as Lipak and PO Series.

The Lower Gondwana System (11) of formations in India are mainly sedimentary sequences. They show much evidences of fluviatile and lacustrine deposits. They indicated glacial conditions prevailed during that period. This system contain a lot of coal seams, indicative of forest resources.

They are distributed in the following regions:

a) The Northern part of the east coast of Peninsular India i.e., from the Godavari Valley to the Rajmahal hills

b) The Domodar, Sone and Narmada Valleys

c) In the Southern side, along Mahanadi Valley

d) Parts of the Himalayn foot hills spread over Nepal, Bhutan, Assam and in Kahsmir.

The Talchir series of rocks containing coal seams, shales and sandstones are the notable features of these formations.

The notable coal deposits observed are:

a) Barakar Series

b) Jharia coal fields

c) Raniganj series

d) Panchet series

e) Mahadeva series

f) Rajmahal series and

g) Jabalpur series.

The upper carboniferous and Permian systems of India contain unique fauna and flora. They are exposed in Spiti, Kumaon, Mount Everest Region, Assam Himalaya, Kashmir-Panjal Volcanic Series, Simla-Garhwal-Krol series and in Eastern Himalayan regions like Sikkim.

These are followed by the geological formations of Mesozoic era.

4. THE MESOZOIC ERA

245 – 66 million years.

…………11 Lower Gondwana &

…………12 Vindhyan

• The Mesozoic geological formations belong to the period between 245 million years and 66 million years.
• It encompasses the formations of the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous ages. The formations are:

a) The Triassic System

b) The Jurassic System

c) The Cretaceous System and

d) The Deccan Traps.

• The Triassic System is the earliest of all these systems in the Mesozoic era.
• This period has shown a very rich and varied fauna and flora.
• Numerous invertebrate fossils, including ceratites, ammonoids, brachiopods, Crinoids, echinoids and pelecypods have been observed in the rocks of this age. Amongst the vertebrates, fishes are quite abundant.

In India, they are exposed as

a) The Lilang system in Spiti

b) Northern Kumaon

c) The Chocolate Series

d) The Kalapani limestone

e) The Kuti shales

f) The Kioto limestone.

• The Jurassic System is exposed as Spiti Shales, Laptal Series of Kumaon, Mount Everest Region, sub-Himalaya of Garhwal, Kutch and Rajasthan areas.
• The Jurassic and Cretaceous Systems are known for their marine transgression. Forminifera play an important part in Cretaceous stratigraphy. The rocks contain limestones, sandstones and shales.
• They are exposed in Himalayan ranges, Central Tibet, Kashmir, Ahmednagar, Kutch, Narmada Valley, Tiruchinopoly, Ariyalur and Rajamahendri areas in north, west and south India.
• The close of the Mesozoic era was marked by the outpouring of enormous lava flows. These lava flows are spread over the vast areas of Western, Central and Southern India.
• The Fissure eruptions which occurred during this time created the Plateau basalts and formed the Deccan Traps in India. It is spread over an area of 300,000 Sq. Kms.
• Near Mumbai, the thickness of basalts is found to be well over 2000 m. It also contains typical infra-trappean and inter-trappean beds.
• The Radiometric age determination of these volcanic sequences indicated an age range from 42 to 65 million years, from now.
• Valuable resources of Quartz minerals, amethyst, agate, Onyx and many good gemstones occur in these volcanic rocks.
• Laterite and bauxite cappings are also present in many parts of these formations.
• These are followed by the formations of Cenozoic Era in geological History in India.

5. THE CENOZOIC ERA

66 million years to the present day.

• The Cenozoic era of geological formations in India belong to the period from 66 million years to the present day.
• The formations belonging to this age are:

a) The Tertiary Systems

b) The Eocene System

c) The Oligocene System

d) The Lower and the Middle Miocene

e) The Pliocene System and

f) The Pleistocene System.

• The Tertiaries, in India, are called as Marine Tertiaries.

In the Tertiary period, in India, the Himalayan orogenic movements began. It is also observed that the volcanism associated with the Deccan Traps has continued. The rocks of this era have shown much valuable resources of petroleum and coal.

They are found in the Salt Range, Potwar Plateau, outer Himalayan regions of Jammu and Punjab, Assam, Sind and Baluchistan.

The Tertiary Succession are fully spread over the Bengal and Ganges delta, East coast and Andaman Islands.

Small patches are also seen along the coastal Kerala and coastal Karnataka, coastal Gujarat, Kathiawar and Kutch regions.

• The Eocene System includes the rocks found in Sind and Baluchistan regions. It includes the following unique geologic series of formations:

a) Ranikot Series,

b) Laki Series,

c) Kirthar Series,

d) Kashmir ranges,

e) Eocene Formations of Simla, Rajasthan, Kutch, Assam, Gujarat region,

f) The Eocene beds of Cauvery Basin and Bengal Basin.

• Oligocene and lower Miocene systems are exposed in the Cauvery Basin, Kutch and Rajasthan, Sind and Baluchistan, Potwar Plateau, Jammu, Simla Himalaya and Assam.
• A lot of coal and petroleum resources of India are found in most of these formations.
• The Miocene to Pleistocene formations are exposed as several unique systems and series.
• The mammalian fauna are represented by many fossil evidences. The fossil man appeared in the Pleistocene period only.

• They geological formation of this period are :

a) The Siwalik System in north western India.

b) The Manchhar Series in Sindh

c) The Tipam and Dihing Series in Assam

d) The Dwarka Beds in Kathiawar

e) The Khar series in Kutch

f) The Varkala Beds in Coastal Kerala

g) The Cuddalore Sandstones in Tamil Nadu and

h) The Rajamahendri Sandstones in Andhra Pradesh.

• Lignite, fire clays, ball clays, terra cotta clay, sandstones, shell-limestone, Kaolin and petroleum are the major economic natural resources of these formations.
• The alluvium which is found in the Indo-Gangetic plain are all belonging to this era.
• The older alluvium is called Bhangar and is present in the ground above the flood level of the rivers.
• Khaddar or newer alluvium is confined to the river channels and their flood plains. This region has some of the most fertile soil found in the country as new silt is continually laid down by the rivers every year.
• In addition to these, geological bodies of Quaternary period also exist in India.
• These belong to the period from 1.6 million years till the recent past.
• It includes all the recent alluvial deposits of Indo-Gangetic plains in the northern parts of India.
• They are also occurring along the Brahmaputra river banks. The Deltaic regions of major rivers including the Cauvery, Krishna, Mahanadi and the Ganges contain the alluvial deposits of this age.
• Human culture and global diversity in faunal and floral assemblages happened during the Pleistocene period. Five major episodes of glaciation happened during the last 1 million years. The post glacial environment has indicated the development of Mesolithic human culture, in India, approximately about 20,000 years Before Christ. The geology of India exhibits a very rich information about the continent and its evolution as well.

Vindhyan basin

• Vindhyan basin is named after the Vindhyan Mountains Covers an exposed area of 60,000sq.km and a concealed area of 1,62,000km.sq under the IndoGangetic Alluvium and Deccan Trap
• The strata are exposed in Son valley, Bundelkhand and Rajasthan
• The Son –Narmada fault bound the basin in the south and the Great Boundary Fault in the northwest
• Geographically, it starts from Sasaram in the east to Dholpur in the north.
• Vindhyan basin belongs to mesoproterozoic.
• Vindhyan supergroup is the thickest Precambrian sedimentary succession of India and duration of its deposition is the longest.
• It is sickle shape, ENE trending situated on the Bundelkhand craton.
• Vindhyan supergroup can be divided into two viz… upper Vindhyan and lower Vindhyan, composed of sandstone, shale and carbonate, few conglomerate and volcanoclastic bed.
• Lower vindhyan is 1,300-1,100M.y, marine in origin consisting of calcareous and argillaceous sediments
• Upper vindhyan is 1,000-600my, fluviatile in origin and exclusively arenaceous

• Vindhyan basin, also called Purana basin is one of the important mesoproterozoic basin (1,600- 1,000Ma ).

• • In Rewa group, some formation of shales and sandstones contain diamoniferous conglomerates.
  • The presence of coal intercalations indicates the existence of plants in Kaimur and Semri group

though there is no workable coal seam.

• Vindhyan supergroup can be divided into two viz… upper Vindhyan and lower Vindhyan,
• composed of sandstone, shale and carbonate, few conglomerate and volcanoclastic bed.
• Lower vindhyan is 1,300-1,100M.y, marine in origin consisting of calcareous and argillaceous sediments
• Upper vindhyan is 1,000-600my, fluviatile in origin and exclusively arenaceous
• Upper Vindhyan enclose two diamond bearing horizon, from which Panna and Golconda diamonds
• have been mined.

Upper Vindhyan – 1,000-600my

• • Fluviatile in origin and exclusively arenaceous.
  • Bhander Group
  • Rewa Group
  • Kaimur Group

Lower Vindhyan – 1,300-1,100M.y

• Marine in origin consisting of calcareous and argillaceous sediments.
• Semri Group (oldest group)

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

• Diamond,pyrite,coal,limestone,building and decorative stones are reported from Vindhyan basin
• Diamond have been reported in the conglomerate in Panna
• The limestone of Vindhyans are among the most important sources of raw materials for the lime and cement industry in India
• Vindhyan sandstone near U.P on disintegrating by weathering yield good sands which are being used for the manufacture of glass.
• Pyrite is reported from the Bijaigarh shales of lower Kaimur.The material is of good quality, containing around 45% sulphur, without any arsenic.

Semri group

• 3000 to 4000m thickness Derived its name from Semri river well developed in the eastern Son valley
• It rests with non-conformity on Bundelkhand Irregular thickness indicates irregular basin floor
• It is made up of five alternating formations of shale and carbonates with areas of sandstones and volcanic clastic units
• Basal succession consist of conglomerate, cross bed ferruginous sandstone and shale Pb-Pb isochron age is 1750-1500Ma

Rewa group

• Named after the Rewa state
• Thickness 100-300m
• Sediments thickens to the north indicating deepening of the basin
• Seperated from kaimur by a zone of diamond bearing conglomerate
• Consist of a series of shales and sandstones formations that, in areas contain kimberlite derived diamondiferous conglomerates
• The presence of mud crack suggest periodical exposures and the presence of rain prints in the shale indicates sub aerial conditions

Bhander group

• Named after Bhander upland, extensively developed along the axis of the basin and in the Bhopal inlier within the Deccan trap
• Thickness is 1300-1500m
• Seperated from the Rewa group by a horizon diamond bearing conglomerate
• Bhander sandstone are fine grained and soft
• The Ganurgarh shale with stromatolitic limestone indicates shoreline lagoon-tidal flat complex
• The top unit of Maihar sandstone unit is a blanket deposit with ripple marks, cross bedding and load-cast indicating tidal flat to near shore littoral environment.

Kaimur group

• Named after Bhander upland, extensively developed along the axis of the basin and in the Bhopal inlier within the Deccan trap
• Thickness is 1300-1500m
• Seperated from the Rewa group by a horizon diamond bearing conglomerate
• Bhander sandstone are fine grained and soft
• The Ganurgarh shale with stromatolitic limestone indicates shoreline lagoon-tidal flat complex
• The top unit of Maihar sandstone unit is a blanket deposit with ripple marks, cross bedding and load-cast indicating tidal flat to near shore littoral environment.

Gondwana supergroup

• The term supergroup may be use for several associated groups or for associated groups and formations with significant lithological properties in common.

• The Gondwana superGroup is made up of 6 to 7 km thick succession of mainly fluviatile and lacustrine deposits.
• However, a glacial deposit occurs at the base and the intercalations of the fossiliferous marine beds occur both in the lower and upper parts of the succession.
• The chief rock types are sandstones ,shales, clays, conglomerates and coal seams.
• In addition to these rocks the upper Gondwana succession contain about 600 meter thick lava flows of basalt.
• The rocks of Gondwana are found occupying basin shaped depressions in the older formation and such depressions sometimes, though not always, nor even generally correspond to the existing river valleys. The Gondwana beds were originally deposited on an uneven surface.
• A major part of the Gondwana sediments are confined to the three tracts, which include
• Koel- Damodar Godavari basins.
• Son – Mahanadi Godavari basins.
• Pranhita Godavari basins.

Economic Importance

• Coal. The Barakar and Raniganj Formation of the Damuda Group constitute the most important coal bearing rock formations. All of the Gondwana coal is of bituminous variety.
• Iron Ore. About 760m thick ferruginous shales, known as the “Iron stones shales”. These shales form a diposit of sideritic iron ore which contains about 40-50% iron.
• Clay. The clays of various types are found in abundance in the Gondwana rocks. These clays are used for making refractory bricks, pottery and china ware.
• StoneBuildings. The Gondwana sandstones is generally of inferior quality. However, some of it is being used as building stone.
• Most of the gondwana cole is found in the Damuda series.
• Gondwana land comprises India, Australia, Africa, S. America and Antartica
• Reserves of grade- A in Gondwana coalfields on India. Non- cooking coal production in almost all the states other than Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland are graded on the bases of useful heat value in kcal/ kg. coal from Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland are not graded.

Talchir Formation:

• This formation rests unconformably over the basement of either Archaean gneisses and schists or Proterozoic age.
• Boulder bed/ tillite, rhythmite, khaki green needle shale and light green sandstone are constitute in this formation.
• Presence of a few plant fossils of seed ferns Gangamopteris cyclopteroides and Glossopteris indica.

Karharbari Formation:

• Conglomerates, pebble beds, coarse to very coarse grained pebbly sandstone, siltstone, shale and thin streaks and bands of coal are present.
• Contains of coal seams in a few basins and the plant fossil Gondwanidium burriada biozone is considered as characteristic of this formation.
• Karharbari Formation is the oldest formation in India where coal has been found. The Gondwana coals of Permian times are mainly found in the Peninsular Gondwana basins of India .

• Raniganj Formation:
• Consists of sandstones, shale and coal seams, the sandstones being fine-grained than those in the Barakar Formation.
• Valuable coal-seams occur in these strata only in the Raniganj coalfield.

2. Barren Measures Formation

• It is represented by alternating units of cross bedded ferruginous sandstone, micaceous siltstone

and ferruginous shale.

• The latter rock unit is called Ironstone Shale in the Raniganj coalfield.

3. Barakar Formation

• A 250m thick Barakar Formation
• The china-clay deposits of the formation are often of economic significant.

Panchet formation:

• The formation comprises of greenish, buff and brownish sandstones and shales in the lower part, and greyish micaceous and feldspathic sandstones and shales in the upper part.
• The lower sandstones are often false-bedded and contain no coal seams or carbonaceous matter.

Supra -Panchet (Mahadeva):

• Maximum development of Supra -Panchet is found in the Bokaro basin, where it attains a thickness of 600m in the Luga Hill section.
• Ferruginous sandstone, conglomerate, pebble beds and red clay are prominent rock units of this formation.

Satpura Basin:

• The Satpura basin is spindle-shaped with a length to breadth ratio of 4:1.
• The entire area is about 1200 sq. km.
• It constitutes of sandstone, coal, carbonaceous clay, shale etc.

Son- Mahanadi valley

• About 575 km long funnel-shaped Gondwana tract of Son Valley basin in the northwest and NW-SE trending Mahanadi Valley basin in the SE.
• Most of the coalfields are located in Rewa-Chattishgarh areas.
• The coalfields of Son Valley part include Singrauli, Sohagpur, Sonhat, Ramkola, Tatapani etc.
• The coalfields of Mahanadi Valley are Korba, HasdoArand and Mand-Raigarh.

Pranhita-Godavari Valley

• The NW-SE trending Pranhita- Godavari Valley is unique as it preserves about 3000 m thick sediments deposited in a time span of 200 Ma from late Carboniferous/ early Permian to Cretaceous.
• Most of the coalfields are located along the western margin at Sirpur, Chelpur, Pasara, Lingala, Bellampalli, etc. whereas Cherla and Manuguru are located in the east.
• Three prominent faults pattern are identified in the Pranhita Godavari Gondwana basin –
• NNW-SSE trending syndepositional faults that controlled sedimentation and grabens/ half-grabens development.
• NW-SE faults that imparted echelon fabric to south western margin, and
• the NE-SW transverse faults, oriented parallel to the grain of the eastern Ghat Mobile belt transecting the Godavari valley basin into different sub-blocks.

Wardha Valley

• The Gondwana rocks of the Godavari Valley extend northwest ward into the Wardha valley of Maharashtra.
• Important coalfields are located in an area of about 4150 sq. km. having similar geological succession to that of the Godavari Valley.
• The Wardha coal field is a broad anticline plunging NNW.

Rajmahal Hills

• It is situated in the north eastern part of the Jharkhand State, preserve Gondwana Formation comprising Talchir, Barakar and Dubrajpur Formations.
• These are overlain by the Rajmahal Formation made up of a series of basaltic lava flows and associated inter- trapping beds.
• The Rajmahal Traps are predominantly composed of fine grained to coarsely crystalline dolerite.
• These Traps are plateau basalts characterised by the absence or rare occurrence of olivine.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

MAP – FOLLOW UP

IGNEOUS ROCKS

IGNEOUS ROCKS – PLUTONIC – ACID

IGNEOUS ROCKS – PLUTONIC – ACID

IGNEOUS ROCKS

SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

.

View larger map

Physiographic Regions

Physiography of India

On the basis of physical features, India can be divided into six divisions:

• The Northern mountains
• The Northern Plains
• The Peninsular Plateau
• The Indian Desert
• The Coastal Plains
• The Islands.

Out of the total area of the country, about 10.6% is occupied by mountains, 18.5% by hills, 27.7% by plateaus and 43.2% by the plains.

The oldest landmass, the Indian Peninsula, was a part of the Gondwanaland. The Gondwanaland included India, Australia, Africa and South America as one single land mass. The convectional currents split the crust into a number of pieces, thus leading to the drifting of the Indo-Australian plate after being separated from the Gondwanaland, towards North. The Northward drift resulted in the collision of the Indian plate with the much larger Eurasian Plate.

Due to this collision, the sedimentary deposit which were accumulated in the geosyndilne (a long shallow depression between two large landmasses) known as the Tethys were folded to form the mountain system of Western Asia and Himalaya. The Himalayan upllftment out of the Tethys sea and subsidence of the Northern flank of the Peninsular plateau resulted in the formation of a large basin. In due course of time this depression, gradually got filled with deposition of sediments by the rivers flowing from the mountains in the North and the Peninsular plateau in the South.

The Northern Mountain

It is divided into three groups. These are :

• The Himalayas
• The Trans Himalayas
• The Purvanchal hills

• • The Himalayan Mountains Himalayas are the young fold mountains. This is the highest mountain range of the world. Himalayas act as natural barrier. The extreme cold, snow and rugged topography discourage the neighbors to enter India through Himalayas. They run from west-east direction from Indus to Brahmaputra along the northern boundary of India covering a distance of 2500 KM. Their width varies from 400 in the west and 150 KM in the East. Cover a total area of about 5, 00,000 km2.

Himalayas represent the youngest and the highest folded mountains of the earth, rising to over 8000 m above sea level and consisting of three parallel ranges:

(a) Greater Himalayas or Himadri (b) Lesser Himalayas or Himachal (c) Outer Himalayas or Siwaliks.

(a) The Greater Himalayas or Himadari:

• The Greater Himalayas comprises of the northernmost ranges and peaks.
• It has an average height of 6000 metres and width lies between 120 to 190 Kms.
• It is the most continuous range.
• It is snow bound and many glaciers descend from this range.
• It has high peaks like Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Nanga Parbat etc. having a height of more than 8000 metres.
• Mt. Everest (8848 m) is the highest peak of the world.
• Kanchenjunga is the highest peak of Himalaya in India.
• High Mountain passes also exist in this range, namely, Bara Lacha-La, Shipki-La,Nathu-La, Zoji-La, Bomidi-La etc. The Ganga and Yamuna rivers originates from this Himalayas.

(b) The Lesser Himalayas or Himachal:

• The altitude of this range lies between 1000 and 4500 metres and the average width is 80 KM.
• The Prominent ranges in this are Pir Panjal, Dhaula Dhar and Mahabharata ranges.
• It also comprises of famous valleys like Kashmir, Kullu, Kangra etc.
• It is about 80 km wide with average height between 1300 to 5000 m.
• Important ranges include the Dhaùladhar, Pirpanjal, Nag Tiba, Mahabharat range and Mussoorie range. The famous hill resorts like Shimla, Chau, Ranikhet, Chakrata, Mussoorie, Nainital, Almora and Darjeeling, etc. are situated over this range.
• Along the slopes are found a number of small pastures which are called Merg in Kas hmir (viz. Gulmerg, Sonmerg, Tanmerg) and Bugyal and Payar in Uttarakhand.

(c) The Outer Himalayas or the Siwaliks:

• It is the outermost range of the Himalayas.
• The altitude varies between 900-1100 meters and the width lies between 10-50 KM.
• The valleys lying between Siwalik and Lesser Himalayas (Himachal) are called ‘Duns’ like Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun.
• The range has a total length of about 2400 km from the Indus gorge to the Brahmaputra valley.
• It is known by various local names, i.e. the Jammu hills (Jammu & Kashmir), the Dundwa range (Uttarakhand), the Chuna Muria hills (Nepal), the Daffla, Miri, Abor and Mishrni hills (Arunachal Pradesh).

II. The Trans-Himalayan ranges

• It extends north of greater Himalaya and parallel to it is called zaskar range.
• North of Zaskar range lies Ladakh range.
• The Indus river flows between Zaskar and Ladakh range.
• K2 is the second highest peak of the world.
• The Trans-Himalayan Zone with a width of 40 km in its eastern and western ends and a width of 222 km in its central part, it has important ranges such as the Zaskar Range and the Great Karakoram range.
• The Karakoram extends towards the south-east to form the Kailash Range (Tibet). The highest peak in the Karakoram range is K2 (8,61 1 m). The longest glacier is Siachen in the Nubra Valley which is more than 72 Ian long.

III. The Purvanchal hills

• It comprises Mishami, Patkoi, Naga, Mizo hills which are located in eastern side.
• The Meghalaya plateau is also part of these hills which includes the hills of Garo, Khasi and Jaintia.
• The hill ranges running in north-south direction along the Burmese border and passing through Arunachal Pradesh (Tirap division), Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram are collectively called Purvanchal.
• These are known by various local names, i.e. Patkai Bum (Arunachal Pradesh), Naga hills, Kohima hills, Manipur hills, Mizo hills, Tnpura hills and Barail range.
• Extending from Arunachal Pradesh in the north to Mizoram in the south, they form India’s boundary with Myanmar.
• In the north is the Patkai Bum, which forms the international boundary between Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar.
• After running for some distance southwards, it merges into Naga Hills where Saramati (3826 m) is the highest peak.
• After crossing the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take a sudden southward turn and form a series of comparatively low hills running in the shape of a crescent with its convex side pointing towards the west.
• These hills are collectively called the Purvanchal because they are located in the eastern part of India.
• The hill ranges running in north-south direction along the Burmese border and passing through Arunachal Pradesh (Tirap division), Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram are collectively called Purvanchal.
• These are known by various local names, i.e. Patkai Bum (Arunachal Pradesh), Naga hills, Kohima hills, Manipur hills, Mizo hills, Tnpura hills and Barail range.
• Extending from Arunachal Pradesh in the north to Mizoram in the south, they form India’s boundary with Myanmar.
• In the north is the Patkai Bum, which forms the international boundary between Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar.
• After running for some distance southwards, it merges into Naga Hills where Saramati (3826 m) is the highest peak.

Longitudinal divisions of the Himalayas

Longitudinally, the Himalayas can be divided into following sections.

1. The Punjab Himalayas.

• • The 560 km long stretch of the Himalayas between the Indus and the Sutlej rivers is known as the Punjab Himalayas. A large portion of this sector lles in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh as a result of which it is also called the Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya.
  • Karakoram, Ladakh, Ph Panjal, Zaskar and Dhaula Dhar are the main ranges of this section.

2. Kumaon Himalayas

• • Extends from Sutlej to Kali river valleys and is said to have 360 lakes, such as Nain! Tal and Bhimtal.
  • The Pilgrimage centers (Badrinath, Gangotri) located in this section is of particular importance to the Hindus.

3. Nepal Himalayas

• • This section extends from Kali to Tista and has the distinction of having some of the highest peaks in the world including Mt. Everest.

4. Assam Himalayas

• This section extends from Tista to Brahmaputra. The highest peak of this range is Namcha Barwa.

2.The Northern Plains

• Location – The Northern Plains are located between south of the Himalayas and north of the Peninsular plateau.
• Formation – It is formed by the deposition of the sediments brought by three main river systems namely : the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
• Extent – From Punjab in the west to Assam in the east, this plain is about 2400 km long. Its width varies from about 300 km in the west to about 150 km in the east. It mainly includes the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam.
• Significance – This plain is very fertile due to alluvial sediments brought by the rivers from the Himalayas. This plain is one of the largest and most fertile plains of the world. Major crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, pulses, oil seeds and jute are grown here. Due to proper irrigation, the plain makes significant contribution in the production of food grains.

The Northern plain

The Northern plain is broadly divided into two parts :

(a) The Western plain (b) The Ganga-Brahmaputra plain

(a) The Western Plain

This plain is formed by the river system of the Indus. It lies to the west of Aravallis. This plain is formed due to deposits brought by the rivers like the Satluj, the Beas and the Ravi. This part of the plain has doabs.

(b) The Ganga-Brahmaputra plain

It is also formed by the deposition of the sediments brought by two main river systems, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. The early civilizations like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa also called river valley civilizations, were spread over plain areas. This is because of the availability of fertile land and water through the river networks.

Doab: the alluvial land between two converging rivers. Example doab area in Punjab.

Based on Bed Types

Bhabar

• It lies all along the foot of the Siwaliks with remarkable continuity from the Indus to the Tista
• It is generally 8 to 16 km wide belt consisting of gravel and unassorted sediments deposited by the Himalayan rivers in the foreland zone due to sudden break of slope
• The porosity is so high that all streams disappear in the Bhabar tract leaving out only dry channels

Tarai :

• • South of the Bhabar lies a 15-30 km wide marshy tract called terni where streams reappear to the surface
  • The Terai is more marked in the eastern part than in the west due to higher amount of rainfall
  • It is a zone of excessive dampness, thick forests & rich wild life

Khadar: The area flooded by rivers almost every year.

• The younger alluvium of the flood plains of the numerous rivers is called the Khadar or Bet (in Punjab).
• Its alluvium is light coloured and poor in calcareous matter consisting of deposits of sand, silt, mud and clay.

On the basis of regional characteristics, the Great Plains may be divided into following sub plains:

The Punjab-Haryana Plains

. Extends from Punjab in the west to yamuna River (Haryana) in the East

. Land of five rivers is primary made up of ‘doabs’ the land between two rivers.

. They are composed by Bets (Khadar plains) and Dhaya (Heavily gullied bluffs)

. With a distance of 640 km from north-east to south-west and 300 km from west to east, these flat plains occupy 1.75 lakh sq km. They comprise the Bist Doab (between Sutlej and Beas rivers), the Ban Doab (between Beas and Ravi rivers), the Chaf Doab (between Chenab & Jhelum) & the Sindh Sa.gar Doab (between Jhelum – Chenab & Indus).

The Rajasthan Plains

Extent: 650 km long.

. Thar or Great Indian Desert is the western most region of Great Indian plains in the western Rajasthan.

. A Semi arid plain, lying to the east of Thar desert is known as Rajasthan Bagar.

. The luni is the only South-West flowing river of this regain.

. The Sambhar (Largest), the Kuchaman, and the Didwana are important lakes situated to the north of lumi Basin.

The Rajasthan desert is sloping towards two directions

(a) westwards to the Indus Valley in Pakistan, and

(b) southwards to the Rann of Kutch.

The Ganga Plains

Spreading across the states of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Bihar for 3.57 lakh sq km,the plains comprise the raised bhangar areas and Khadar areas.

The Ganga Plain is divided into the ‘ The Ganga and its tributaries like Yamuna. Ghangra, Gomli, Kosi, Son deposit large amount of alluvium and make this extensive plain more fertile.

(a) Ganga-Yamuna Doab,

(b) Rohilkhand Plain,

(c) Avadh Plain (covering the eastern half of Uttar Pradesh). (d) Bihar Plain, and

(e) Bengal Plain.

The Ganga delta which constitutes the Bengal basin, has part of it stretching along the sea and covered with tidal forests (the Sunderbans).

The Brahmaputra Plains

The low-level plains formed by deposits carried by mainly the Brahmaputra river but also the Diband, the Sesiri and the Luhit are bordered by high mountains. Moist soil conditions and thick forests form the northern extreme.

The low- level Plains formed by the Brahmaputra river system is situated between Eastern Himalaya (Arunachal Pradesh) in the

north, patkal and Naga hills in the east, Garo-Khasi-Jaintia and Mikir Hills and Lower Ganga plain and indo-Bangladesh in the west.

The Peninsular Plateau

3. The Peninsular Plateau

• Peninsular plateau is a triangular shaped table land.
• It is part of ancient land mass called Gondwana land.
• It covers an area of nearly 5 lakh sq.km.
• It is spread over the states of Gujarat,Maharashtra, Jhharkhand, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Division

(i) The central highlands

(ii) Deccan Plateau

(iii) The North-Eastern Plateau

(IV) The Indian Coasts and Islands

(1) The central Highlands:

It extends from Narmada river and the northern plains. Aravallis is the important mountain which extends from Gujrat through Rajasthan to Delhi. The highest peak of the Aravallis hills is Gurushikhar (1722m) near Mt. Abu. The Malwa Plateau and Chhota Nagpur plateau are parts of the central highlands. River Betwa, chambal and Ken are the important river of Malwa plateau while Mahadeo, Kaimur and Maikal are the important hills of chhota Nagpur plateau. The valley of Narmada is lies between the Vindhyas and the satpura which flows east to west and joins the Arabian sea.

An Eastern extension of central high lands is formed by Rajmahal hills.

The general elevation of the central high lands ranges between 700-1000 m above the mean sea level. It slopes towards the North and North-Eastern directions.

The Aravalli Range

It runs North-East to South-West for 800 km from Delhi through Rajasthan to Ahmadabad in Gujarat. These are the relict mountains representing one of the world’s oldest high lands formed as a result of folding process in Archaean times. It has a lower elevation between Delhi and Ajmer, where it is characterised by a chain of discontinuous ranges. But it becomes a continuous range South of Ajmer where it rises to 900 m elevation. At the South-West extremity the range rives to over 1,000 m. Here Mountain Abu (1,158 rn), a small hilly block, is separated from the main range by the valley of the Banas.

The general height of this range varies between 400-1300 m. Gure Skikhar 1722 m) is the highest peak of the range, located in Abu hills of Rajasthan. Barr, Pipllghat, Dewari, Desuri are some of the passes associated with this range.

East Rajasthan Uplands

It is located East of the Aravali range in North-West India. The upland covers an area of 23,200 sq. km and have a general elevation of 350 m. It constitutes the Northern part of Central Highlands.

Madhya Bharat Plateau

It is the Northern of the central highlands. It covers an area of about 22 thousand sq km. Most of it comprises of the basim of the chambal river which flows in a rift valley.

Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand Uplands

It lles to the South of Yamuna river along border region of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Bundelkhand covers five districts of Uttar Pradesh and four districts of Madhya Pradesh. Baghelkhand lles South-East of the Bundelkhand region and is largely made up of llmestones and sandstones. They are represented by rounded Hummocky hills made of granite and sandstone. Streams like

Betwa and Ken have carved out steep gorges, rocky banks and waterfalls in these uplands rendering them unfit for cultivation. The region is characterized by ‘senile topography’

The Maiwa Plateau Largely in Northern Madhya Pradesh, forms a triangular shape and is typical for having two systems of drainage. Rivers like Mahi and Narmada flow through it into the Arabian sea, while rivers like Chambal and Betwa flow through it to join Yamuna and ultimately fall into Bay of BengaL

It is composed of lava flows and is covered with black soils. Which is useful for cotton cultivation. This plateau is marked in its North by the badlands or ravines formed by Chambal river by exercising gully erosion.

The Vindhyan Ranges

• It runs parallel to the Narmada Rift valley as an escarpment in an East-West direction from Jobat in Gujrat to Sasaram in Bihar for a distance of 1200 km, The general elevation of the ranges is 400-700 in. It consists of horizontal beds of sedimentary rocks.
• It continues Eastwards as Bharner hills and Kaimur hills. Panna hills also lie in these ranges. The Great boundary fault separates the Aravallis from Vindhyan range.
• This range acts as a watershed between the Ganga system and the river system of South India and forms the northern boundary of the Deccan.

The Baghelkhand

East of Maikal Range is the Baghel Khand made of limestones and Sandstones on the west and granite in the east.

It covers and area of about 1.4 lakh sq. km.

The central part of the plateau acts as a water divide between the son drainage system in the north and the Mahanadi river system in the South.

The Chhotanagpur Plateau

East of BaghelKhand. the chotanagpur Plateau represents the north-eastern projection of the indian peninsula.

It covers an area of 87 thousand sq. km mostly in Jharkhand, northern part of chhatisgarh and purulia district of West Bengal.

It is the storehouse of minerals and a large scale mining of iron, manganese, coal, uranium etc is done in this region. This plateau is drained by numerous rivers fonuing a radial drainage pattern. Damodar river valley is well-known for its coal deposits.

In the North-East of this region lies Hazaribagh plateau, while towards East are Parasnath hills and towards South-East is Ranchi plateau.

Rajmahal hills form the North-Eastern edge of the Chhotanagpur plateau and are covered by black soil. The plateau is an example of Pat Land.

(2) The Deccan Plateau:

This is the largest unit of peninsular Plateau of India covering an area of about 5 lakh sq. km.

Deccan plateau is bordered by the Western ghats in the West, Eastern ghats in the East and the Satpura, Maikal and Mahadec hills in North. The Deccan Plateau is higher in the West and slopes gently eastwards. It is higher in South than its North.

The Satpura Ranges

It is a series of seven mountains that run in the East-West direction in between Narmada and Tapi rivers. It is an example of block mountain. Commencing from the Rajpipla hills in the West through the Mahadev hills to Maikal range, it stretches for about 900 km.

Dhupgarh (1350 m) on Mahadev hills near Pachmarhi in Madhya Pradesh is the highest peak of the ranges. Amarkantak (1,127 m) is another important peak lying in the Maikal range at Madhya Pradesh-Chhattisgarh border and is the source of river Narmada.

Maharashtra Plateau is a basaltic sheet with a thickness of more than 2000 m. It has been formed by the consolidation of the lava. Maharashtra plateau covers the entire State of Maharashtra except Konkan coast and the Sahyadris.

The entire area is covered by black cotton soil known Regur.

Karnataka Plateau is situated at the south in Deccan plateau. It covers entire Karnataka except a small portion of North-East. It has the rocks of lava origin.

The karnataka Plateau is divided into two parts s,e Mamad and Maidan. The Malnad in Kannada means hill country. It is dissected into deep valleys covered with dense forcsts. The Maidan on the other hand is formed of rolling plain with low granite hills.

Telangana Plateau constitutes the North- Eastern part of Deccan plateau. It covers an area of 1.4 lath sq km. It is located in the

Western part of Andhra Pradesh.

• The Telangana Plateau consists of Archean geniuses at an avenge clevation of 500-600 m.
• The entire plateau is divided into two major physiographic regions, namely, the Ghats and the peneplains.

The Western Ghats or sahyadris Forming the western edge of the Deccan table land, the western Ghats run in North-South direction, Parallel and dose to the Arabian Sea coast, from the Tapi valley (21 °N latitude) to a little north of kanyakumari (11 °N latitude) for a distance of 1,600 km.

• Their average width varies from 50 km in the North to about 300 km in the South. It is composed of lava deposits up to 16°N latitude. Important peaks of the Western Ghats from North to South include – Kalsubai (1646 m – highest peak of Maharashtra), Saltier (1567 m), Mahabaleshwar (1438 m) in Maharashtn and Kudremukh (1892 m) as the highest peak in Karnataka.
• The Sivasamudran fall, Gokak fall and Mahatma Gandhi fall are important waterfalls in Western Ghats. Bhor Ghat, Thalghat and Paighat are the important passes facilitating movement between the Western coastal plains and rest of the country
• Paighat gap separates Nilgiri hills in the South from Anaimalai hills.
• It is at the Nilgiris that Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats meet with each other. Anamudi (2695 m) in the Anaimalai hills is the highest peak of whole of Southern India.
• Another important peak is Dodabetta (2637 m) of Nilgiri hills. Cardamom hills are the Southernmost hills and reach upto Kanyakumari and are famous for cultivation of Cardamom and spices.

The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous and irregular and dissected by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal.

• These are a series of detached hills of heterogeneous composition which are called by various local names.
• The Western ghats are higher than the Eastern ghats.
• Their average elevation is 900-1600 mas against 600 m of the Eastern Ghats.
• The Eastern Ghats stretch from the South of Mahanadi valley to the Nilgiris in the South.
• The Eastern Ghats are comparatively broader and do not form a continuous water divide.
• Moya Konda (1680 m) at Andhra-Odisha border is the highest peak of Eastern Ghats. Other important peaks include Mahendra girl (1501 m)in Odisha, Gall Konda(1643 m)etc. It is a continuous range from south of Mahanadi to Godavari. South of it, it is highly dissected.
• They continue South of Krishna river in the form of dissected hills from North to South in Andhra Pradesh and Tarai! Nadu as Nallamala hills. Palkonda range, Velikonda range, Javadi hills and Shevaroy hills only to confluence with Western Ghats at Nilgiri hills. Khondalites are predominantly found in Eastern Chats.

3. North East Plateau

It is an extension of the main Peninsular plateau. It is believed that due to the force exerted by the North-Eastward movement of the Indian plateau at the time of the Himalayan origion, a huge fault was created between the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau. Later this depression got filled up by the deposition activity of the numerous rivers. Today, the Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau stand detached – from the main Peninsular Block. The Meghalaya plateau is further sub- divided into three parts:—

(j) The Garo hills

(ii) The Khasi hills

(iii) The Jaintia hills

These hills are named after the tribal groups inhabiting this region. An extension of this is also seen in Karbi- Anglong hills of Assam. Similar to the Chhotanagpur plateau, the Meghalaya plateau is also rich in mineral resources like coal, iron ore, Sill manite, limestone and uranium. This area receives maximum rainfall from the South West monsoon. As a result the Meghalaya plateau, especially Cherrapunji, displays a bare rocky surface devoid of any permanent vegetation covet Highest peak of Meghalaya plateau is Nokrek, which is located in Caro hills.

The Indian Desert

4. The Indian Desert

The Great Indian Desert also called Thar desert lies to the North-West of the Aravali hills. It spreads over four states namely Punjab. Haryana. Rajasthan, and Gujarat. It is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and branches. It has arid climate due to very low rainfall (below 150 cm) received by this region.The Indian Desert lies towards the western margin of Aravali Hills.

It is also called Thar Desert. It is the ninth largest desert in the world. It spreads over the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. This region has semi-arid and arid weather conditions. It receives less than 150 mm of rainfall per year. The vegetation cover is low with thorny bushes. Luni is the main river in this area. All other streams appear only at the time of rainfall otherwise they disappear into the sand.

The Coastal Plains

The Indian Coasts and Islands

The Coastal Plains

The 4,500 km long coastline of India has the Arabian Sea on its west, the Bay of Bengal on its east and the Indian Ocean on its south. It runs from the Rann of Kutch in the west to the delta of the Ganga – Brahmaputra in the east. The coastal plain in India has been divided into the following two types:—

Western Coastal Plains

The Western coastal plains are an example of submerged coastal plain. The Western Coastal Plains include plains along Kutch and Kathiawar regions of Gujarat to Konkan plains of Maharashtra-Goa, Karnataka plains and the Southern Malabar plains along Kerala coast.

It is believed that the city of Dwarka which was once a part of the Indian main land situated along the West coast is submerged under water. Because of submergence it is a narrow belt and provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours. It consists of three sections:—

(i) The Konkan Plains extend from Daman to Goa for a distance of around 500 km with a width varying between 5 0-80 km.

• It consists of features of marine erosion as it is a shore line of submergence with a number islands dotting the coast.
• Mumbai was also islands until some connecting land was recovered from sea.
• These plains have fertile stretch of land and some sea water inlets called creeks are also there in between.

(ii) Karnataka or Kannada Coastal Plains stretch from Goa to Mangalore for about 225 km.

• • These are narrow fertile plains. Sharavathi river forms Jog (Gersoppa) falls (271 m) in this region, which is the highest waterfall of India.

(iii) The Malabar Coastal Plains between Mangalore and Kanyakumari are 500 km long.

• They are much wider in extent and at places 96 km wide
• These are low lying plains with extensive presence of lagoons, back waters, spits etc.
• The back water locally known as Kayals are the shallow lagoons or the inlets of the sea into the region.
• The largest among these is the Vembanad lake. Several lagoons have joined to form inland water ways.
• Every year the famous Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala.

Eastern Coastal Plains

As compared to the Western coastal plain the Eastern coastal plain is broader and is an example of an emergent coast. There are well developed deltas here, formed by the rivers flowing Eastward into the Bay of BengaL Because of its emergent nature, it has less number of ports and harbours. The plains are divided into two parts:—

(i) Northern Circars: Rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauven have formed extensive deltas on this coast. It comprises the coastal areas of Odisha. Mahanadi forms delta with a thick layer of fine alluvium. Lake Chilka is important here. In South of it, it comprises Andhra coastline upto Krishna delta.

(ii) Coromandel Coast: South of Northern circars coromandel coast lies extending Southwards along Tamil Nadu coast. It covers an area of 23 thousand sq km. These plains constitute a fertile stretch of the cultivation of a range of crop.

The Islands

There are two main groups of islands in the Indian ocean far away from the coast. India has a number of islands (247) both in the Bay of Bengal (204 islands) and the Arabian sea (43 islands). One of them is the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian sea and the other is the Andaman and Nicobar islands in the Bay of Bengal.

Lakshadweep Islands

These islands group lies close to the Malabar coast of Kerala. This group of 25 islands is composed of small coral islands. The islands North of 110 N latitude are known as Amindivi islands and those South of it are Cannanore islands. They cover small area of 32 sq.km.

• In the extreme South is the Minicoy Island
• All are tiny Islands of coral origin and are surrounded by fringing reefs.
• The largest and the most advanced is the Minicoy Island with an area of 4.53 sq. km.
• Most of the islands have low elevation and do not rise more than 5 m above sea level. Shallow lagoons can be seen on their Western sides while sea slope is steeper towards their Eastern coasts. Kavaratti island is the administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep.
• The Pitli island, which is uninhabited, has a bird sanctuary.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Andaman and Nicobar archipelago has been formed by the extension of the tertiary mountain chains of Arakan Yoma. These is lands lie close to equator and experience equatorial climate and have thick forest cover. Some of the islands are fringed with coral reefs. The entire group of islands is divided into two broad categories: the Andamans in the North and the Nicobars in the South.

The great Andaman group of islands in the North is separated by the Ten Degree Channel from the Nicobar group in the South.

The Andaman islands are sub-divided into four major island groups: North Andaman. Middle Andaman, South Andaman and Little Andaman. Biggest island in Andaman Group is Middle Andaman (1536 sq km) and smallest is Ross island (0.8 km). The capital Port Blair is located on Eastern coast of South Andaman. Barren island and Narcondam island located North of Port Blair are volcanic islands.

Biggest island in Nicobar Group is Great Nicobar (1045 sq km) and smallest is Pilo Milow Island (1.35 sq. km). Andaman and Nicobar islands has 4 National Parks and 40 small ports.

. Little Andaman is separated from the Great Andaman by 50 km wide Duncan passage.

. Saddle peak (737 m) in North Andaman is the highest peak.

. Barren Island is the only active volcano of India which is situated in Andaman Island.

. Indira point is situated at Great Nicobar Island.

.

View larger map

Drainage System

Drainage System of India

All major rivers of India originate from one of the following main watersheds:

• Himalaya and Karakoram ranges
• Aravalli range
• Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India
• Vindhya and Satpura ranges a

Himalaya and Karakoram ranges

River system

Ganges river system

. It is the Largest in India.

. The total area of the Ganga basin in India is 861,404 sq. km which accounts for 26.3% of the geographical area of the country.

. The Ganga basin covers over 12,500 sq. km in northern India.

This basin is shared by

State (%) share

Uttarakhand & UP………… 34.2%

MP & Chhattisgarh…………….23.1%

Bihar & Jharkhand ……………….16.7%

Rajasthan ………………………………13.0%

West Bengal ………………………………8.3%

The major rivers in this system are (in order of merging, from west to east)

• • Ganga – Starting from Vidyasagar Gangotri Glacier, Uttarakhand
  • Chambal -Flows through Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and merges into Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh
  • Betwa – Not Himalayan river, covers Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh before merging Yamuna
  • Yamuna – Yamuna runs its most of the course parallel to Ganga before contributing its water to Ganga at Allahabad
  • Gomti – Starts near the junction of three borders viz. Nepal, Uttarakhand and UP
  • Ghaghra – Starts in Nepal near Uttarakhand
  • Son – Not Himalayan river, covers MP, UP, Jharkhand and Bihar. Largest of Ganga’s southern tributaries
  • Gandak – Starts from Nepal
  • Kosi – Starts from Bihar, near Indo-Nepal border
  • Brahmaputra – Merges with Ganga to form the grand river (but short in length) – Padma in Bangladesh. By now, flow velocity of both rivers slow down to considerable extent as they are in plains now.

Before entering Bangladesh, Ganga leaves a distributary Hoogly, which provides water for irrigation in West Bengal

Ganga

. The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier in Uttarkashi District of Uttarakhand at an elevation of 7,010 m.

• Alaknanda joins it at Devaprayag. Pindar river joins it at Karan Prayag and Mandakini or Kali Ganga at Rudra Prayag.

. The combined waters of the Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda flow in the name of the Ganga, below Devprayag.

. It debouches on plain from hills in Hardwar.

• It is joined by Yamuna in Allahabad.

. Beyond Farakka, it is known as Padma in Bangladesh.

• It bifurcates itself into Bhagirathi-Hooghly in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in Bangladesh.

• The delta formed by the Ganga-Brahmaputra is the largest delta of the world covering an area of 58,752 sq. km.

• Sundarbans is a part of the world’s largest delta.

. The total length, 2525 km, is distributed among states:

(i) Uttar Pradesh — 1 140, (ii) W. Bengal — 520 km, (iii) Bihar —445 kin, (iv) Uttrakhand — 310 km.

The Ganga Drainage System

Name of the river Source Length (in km) Area (sq km)

Ganga Gangotri Glacier at 7,010 m 2,525 861,404

Yamuna Yamnotri Glacier at 6,330 1,376 366,223

Chambal Near Mhow (Indore-M.P) 1,050 139,468

Ramganga Garhwal district at 3,1 10m 596 32,493

Ghaghra Near Gurla Mandhota peak 1,080 127,950

Gandak South of Manasarovar 425 in India 46,300(7,620 in India)

Kosi Tibet-Nepal border at 7,620 730 in India 86,900 (21,500 in India)

Yamuna

. It is the largest and the most important tributary of the Ganga.

. It originates from the Yamunotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak in Garhwal in Uttarakhand.

. It enters the plains near Tajewala.

. Tons, a tributary of it, joins it below Kalsi. At this site, the water carried by the Tons is twice the water carried by the Yamuna.

. It takes a southerly course upto Mathura and south easterly in its onward journey upto Allahabad where it unites with the

Ganga.

. The total length of the yamuna from its origin to its confluence with the Ganga at Allahabad is 1,376 km.

ChambaI

. It rises near Mhow in the highlands of Janapao Hills (700 m) in MP.

. It enters a gorge at Chaurasigarh.

. It joins Yamuna in Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh.

. Banas joins it near Sawai Madhopur.

. Betwa, rising in Bhopal, joins the Yamuna near Hamirpur. Dhasan is an important tributary of Betwa

Son

. It is a large south bank tributary of the Ganga.

. The Son river springs from the Amarkantak Plateau.

. It joins the Ganga near Danapur in Patna district.

. Its catchment area is 71,259 sq. km.

. Almost all the tributaries join it on its right bank.

. Tributaries are Johilla, Rihand, Kanhar and North KoeL

Damodar

• It rises in the hills of the Chotanagpur plateau and flows through a rift valley.

• It is also called ‘Sorrow of Bengal’

. It joins the Hugh 48 km below Kolkata.

. The total length of the river is 541 km.

. Its catchment area is 25,820 sq. km.

. It is also known as “Biological Desert”

Ramganga

• It rises in the Garhwal district of Uttaranchal.

. It enters the Ganga plain near Kalagarh.

. Its basin covers 32,493 sq.km.

Ghaghra

. It originates near the Gurla Mandhata peak, south of Mansarovar in Tibet.

• It is known as the karnall in Western Nepal.

• It joins Ganga a few kilometres downstream of Chapra in Bihar

• The total catchment area of the river is 127,950 sq. km out of which 45% is in India.

. It rises in high glaciers of snow covered region of trans-Himalayas.

. It forms the boundary between Nepal and Kumaon.

. It is known as the Sarda or Chaulca after it reaches the plains near Tanakpur.

Gandak

• • It originates near the Tibet-Nepal border.
  • Kali Gandak, Mayangadi, Bad and Trishuli are the major tributaries of it.
  • It debouches into plain at Tribenis and pours into the Ganga at Hajipur in Bihar after flowing for a distance of 425 km in India.
  • Its drainage area is 46,300 sq. km out of which 7620 sq. km is in India.

Burhi Gandak

• Originating from the western slopes of Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border, it joins the Ganga opposite Monghyr town.
• Its length is 610 kin and drainage area is 12,200 sq. km.
• The Kosi river consists of seven streams, namely, Sutlej, Kosi, Tamba, Kosi, Tallcha, Doodh Kosi, Botia, Kosi, Arun and Tamber and is popularly known as Saptkaushiki.
• Seven rivers mingle with each other to form three streams named the Tumar, Arun and Sun ¡Cosi.
• Then all three streams unite at Tri vent north of the Mahabharat Range to form the ¡Cosi.
• This river is also known as ‘sorrow of Bihar’.

Indus river system

• The Indus River originates in the northern slopes of the Kailash range near Lake Manasarovar in Tibet.
• Although most of the river’s course runs through neighbouring Pakistan, as per as regulation of Indus water treaty of 1960, India can use only 20 percent of the water in this river.
• A portion of it does run through Indian territory, as do parts of the courses of its five major tributaries, listed below.
• These tributaries are the source of the name of the Punjab of South Asia; the name is derived from the panch (“five”) and aab (“water”), hence the combination of the words (Punjab) means “land with the water of five rivers”. The Indus is 3,200 kilometres (2,000 mi) long.
• It has length of 2900 km from its source to the Arabian sea.
• It is known as Singi Khamban Tibet.

The major rivers in Indus river system are (in order of their length):

Indus – 3,202 kilometres (1,990 mi)

Sutlej – 1,529 kilometres (950 mi)

Chenab – 960 kilometres (600 mi)

Jhelum – 813 kilometres (505 mi)

Ravi – 720 kilometres (450 mi)

Beas – 460 kilometres (290 mi)

Shyok

Zanskar

Jhelum

. The Jhelum rises in a spring at verinag in the south-eastern part of the kashmir valley.

. It flows northwards from its source to Wular Lake and further down south-westwards.

. Lidar, Sind and Pohru are the tributaries of Jhelum in Kashmir.

. At Muzaffarabad, the river takes a sharp hairpin swing southward and the Kishaganga joins at on its right bank.

. Thereafter, it forms the India-Pakistan boundary for 170 km and emerges at the Potwar Plateau near Mirpur. It has total length of 724 km.

. It joins the Chenab at Trimmu.

. The river is navigable for about 160 km out of a total length of 724 km.

Chenab

. It is the largest tributary of the Indus.

. It originates near the Bara Lacha Pass in the Lahul-Spiti part of the Zaskar Range. The united stream (Chandra and Bhaga) called the Chandrabhaga flows in the north-west direction through Himachal Pradesh and enters Jammu & Kashmir as Chenab river.

. It enters the plain area near Akhnur in J&K.

. It cuts a deep gorge near kishtwar.

. It receives waters of Jhelum and Ravi rivers.

. The total length of the river is 1,180 km.

Ravi

. It originates from Kullu hills near the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh.

. It cuts a deep gorge in the Ohaula Dhar range after crossing Chamba.

. It enters Punjab Plains near Madhopur and later enters Pakistan 26 km below Amritsar.

. It debouches into the Chenab a little above Rangpur in Pakistani Punjab.

. Its total catchment area is 14,442 sq. 1cm of which only 5,957 sq. kin lies in India

Beas

. The Beas originates near the Rohtang pass, at a height of 4,062 m above sea level, on the southern and of the Nr Panjal Range, close to the source of the Ravi.

. It is a comparatively small river which is only 460 1cm long bout lies entirely within the Indian territory

. It crosses the Dhaula Dhar range through a deep gorge from Lorji to Talwara.

. It debouches on the plain near Pong and meets the Satluj river at Harike.

. It lies entirely within the Indian territory

Satluj river

. It rises from the Mansarovar – Rakas Lake near Darma Pass in western Tibet, where it is also known as Langcher Khambab.

. In Nazi Khorsan province of Tibet, it has created an extraordinary canyon.

. It is joined by the Spiti river at Namgia near the Shipki La.

. Before entering the Purijab Plain, it cuts a gorge in Naina Devi Dhar (Bhakra Dam has been constructed here).

. It enters the plain at Rupnagar (Ropar).

. It is joined by the Beas at Harike.

. From near Ferozepur to Faziilca, it forms the boundary between India and Pakistan for nearly 120 km.

. It joins the Indus a few kilometers above Mithankot.

. Out of its total length of 1,450 lan, it flows for 1,050 km in Indian territory.

Brahmaputra river system

• Mariam La separates the source of the Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar lake.
• With a total length of 2900 km, it is one of the longest rivers of the world & passes through Tibet, India and Bangladesh.
• It is known as Tsangpo(means purifier) in Tibet and Yarlung Zangbo Jiangin in Chinese language.
• It is one of the most remarkable navigable waterways of the world where boats sail at an altitude of about 3000 metre above sea level.
• It emerges as a dynamic river after carving out a deep gorge near Namcha Barwa.
• It emerges from the foothills under the name of Siong or Dihang.
• It enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh where it receives the Dibang and the Lohit. From here after ward, it is known as the Brahmaputra.
• It has a braided channel along most of its length in Assam.
• It is among the four largest rivers of the world in terms of volume of discharge at the mouth. The look is like a delta in reverse where Dibang and Lohit rivers meet the Brahmaputra river.
• Tista, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, was a tributary of the Ganga prior to the devastating floods of 1787.
• Majuli is the river island of the river Brahmaputra (area- 1250 sq. km). Majuli island is Largest riverine island of world. Majuli Island is formally declared district on 8 September 2016.
• National waterways -2 is on the Brahmaputra river from Sadiya to Dhubri.
• Yarlung Tsangpo River – originates and forms the upper stream of Brahmaputra in Tibet
• Siang – main river after it enters India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh
• Dibang – major tributary flowing through Arunachal Pradesh before merging into the Brahmaputra River in Assam.
• Lohit – one of the three major tributaries of Brahmaputra flowing through Arunachal Pradesh from the easternmost India.
• Brahmaputra – runs across the state of Assam from East to West, entering Bangladesh afterwards.
• Teesta – one of the largest tributaries of Brahmaputra; originating in the borders of Sikkim and Tibet, flowing South it joins Brahmaputra in Bangladesh.
• Jamuna River (Bangladesh) – the Brahmaputra is known as Jamuna in Bangladesh.
• Padma River – the Jamuna river merges with Padma in Bangladesh before finally falling into the Bay of Bengal.

Aravalli range river system

North-to-south flowing rivers, originate from the western slopes of Aravalli range in Rajasthan, pass through the southeastern portion of the Thar Desert, and end into Gujarat.

• Luni River, originates in the Pushkar valley near Ajmer, ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch.
• Sakhi river, ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch.
• Sabarmati River, originates one the western slopes of Aravalli range of the Udaipur District, end into the Gulf of Cambay of Arabian Sea.

West to north-west flowing rivers, originate from the western slopes of Aravalli range in Rajasthan, flow through semi-arid historical Shekhawati region, drain into southern Haryana. Several Ochre Coloured Pottery culture sites, also identified as late Harappan phase of Indus Valley Civilisation culture,has been found along the banks of these rivers.

• Sahibi River, originates near Manoharpur in Sikar district flows through Haryana, along with its following tributaries:
  • Dohan river, tributary of Sahibi river, originates near Neem Ka Thana in Alwar district).
  • Sota River, tributary of Sahibi river, merges with Sahibi river at Behror in Alwar district.
  • Krishnavati river, former tributary of Sahibi river, originates near Dariba copper mines in Rajsamand district of Rajasthan, flows through Patan in Dausa district and Mothooka in Alwar district, then disappears in Mahendragarh district in Haryana much before reaching Sahibi river.

West to north-east flowing rivers, originating from the eastern slopes of Aravalli range in Rajasthan, flow northwards to Yamuna.

• Chambal River, a southern-side tributary of Yamuna river.
  • Banas River, a northern-side tributary of Chambal river.
    • Berach River, a southern-side tributary of Banas River, originates in the hills of Udaipur District.
      • Ahar River, a right-side (or eastern side) tributary of the Berach river, originates in the hills of Udaipur District, flows through Udaipur city forming the famous Lake Pichola.
      • Wagli Wagon River, a right-side tributary of the Berach River.
      • Gambhiri River, a right-side tributary of the Berach river.
      • Orai River, a right-side tributary of the Berach River.

North-to-south flowing rivers, originate from the western slopes of Aravalli range in Rajasthan, pass through the southeastern portion of the Thar Desert, and end into Gujarat.

• • Luni River, originates in the Pushkar valley near Ajmer, ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch.
  • Sakhi river, ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch.
  • Sabarmati River, originates one the western slopes of Aravalli range of the Udaipur District, end into the Gulf of Cambay of Arabian Sea.

West to north-west flowing rivers, originate from the western slopes of Aravalli range in Rajasthan, flow through semi-arid historical Shekhawati region, drain into southern Haryana. Several Ochre Coloured Pottery culture sites, also identified as late Harappan phase of Indus Valley Civilisation culture,has been found along the banks of these rivers.

• Sahibi River, originates near Manoharpur in Sikar district flows through Haryana, along with its following tributaries:[4][5][6][7]
  • Dohan river, tributary of Sahibi river, originates near Neem Ka Thana in Alwar district).
  • Sota River, tributary of Sahibi river, merges with Sahibi river at Behror in Alwar district.
  • Krishnavati river, former tributary of Sahibi river, originates near Dariba copper mines in Rajsamand district of Rajasthan, flows through Patan in Dausa district and Mothooka in Alwar district, then disappears in Mahendragarh district in Haryana much before reaching Sahibi river.

The peninsular river system

The main water divide in peninsular rivers is formed by the Western Ghats, which run from north to south close to the western coast. Most of the major rivers of the peninsula such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers make delta at their mouths. The Narmada, Periyar and Tapti are the only long rivers, which flow west and make estuaries.

The East Flowing Rivers

Mahanadi

. It has its source in Dandakaranya near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh.

. Its upper course lies in the saucer-shaped basin called the ‘Chhattisgarh Plains’

. Hirakud dam is built on this river

. The main tributaries are Tel,lb Mand, Hasdo, Jonk, and Sheonath.

Godavari

. It is the largest river system of the Peninsular India.

. It is held in reverence as ‘Vriclha Ganga’ or ‘Dakshina Ganga’

. It has a catchment area of 312,812 sq. km which covers about 10% of the area of India.

. It flows in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and lcarntaka.

. The source of the river is in the Trimbak Plateau of North Sahyadri near Nasik in Maharashtra and discharges its water into the Bay of Bengal

. Manjra is the only important right bank tributary which joins the Godavari near Kondalwadi.

. Below Rajahmundry the river Godavari divides itself into two main streams – the Gautami Godavari on the east and the Vashishta Godavari on the west – and forms a large delta before it pours into the Bay of Bengal

Krishna

. It is the second largest east flowing river of Peninsula in India.

. It rises in Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar.

. It debouches into the Bay of Bengal, forming a big delta in arcuate shape.

. The Koyna, Tungbhadra and Bhima are its major tributaries.

. Koyna Dam is made on the Koyana river, a tributary of the Krishna river.

Cauvery (Kaveri)

. It is designated as “the Ganga of the South” or ‘Dakshina Ganga’.

. Its source lies at Taal Cauvery on the Bnhmagiri range of hills in the Western Ghats.

. Its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by the south-west monsoon and the lower catchment area receives rainfall during winter season by the retreating northeast Monsoon.

. It is one of the best regulated rivers and 90 to 95% of its irrigation and power potential already stands harnessed.

. Sivasamudram waterfalls is on this rivet

. The river divides itself into two distinct channels at Srirangam, the northern channel is called Kollidam and the southern one retains the name Cauvery.

. Cauvery river also forms a big delta in a quadrilateral shape.

Subarnarkha

. It originates from the Ranchi plateau in Jharkhand.

. It forms the boundary between West Bengal and Orissa in its lower course.

. Its total length is 395 kin.

. It Joins Bay of Bengal forming an estuary between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas.

Brahmani

. It comes into existence by the confluence of the Koel and the Sankh rivers near Rourkela in Odisha.

. It has a total length of 800 km.

. Its main tributaries are Kura, Sankhad and Tikra.

. Its main tributaries are Kura, Sankhad and Tikra.

Penneru

. It springs from the Nandi Durg peak in Kamataka.

. The total length is 597 km.

. The principal tributaries are the Jayamangli, the Kunderu, the Chitravari, the Papagam and the Cheyyeru.

The West Flowing Rivers

Narmada

. It is the largest of all the west flowing rivers of the Peninsula.

. It rises from the Amarkantak plateau in Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh.

. It flows through a rift valley between the Vindhyan Range on the north and the Satpura range on the south.

. The Dhuandhar (Clouds of Mist) falls is formed by the Narmada river in Jabalpur.

. It makes an estuary studded with several islands. Aliabet is the largest island.

. The Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed on this river.

Tapi (or Tapti)

. It is the second largest west flowing river of the Indian peninsula.

. It is also known as ‘the twin’ or of the Narmada.

. It originates from sacred tank of Muilcai on the satpura plateau in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.

. The total length of the river is 730 km.

Sabarmati

. This 320 km long river is the name given to the combined streams-the Sabar and the Hathmati.

. It rises from the hills of Mewar in the Aravaui Range. Its tributaries are Hatmati, Sedhi, Wakul, Meshwa, Vatrak etc.

Mahi

. It rises in the Vindhyan range and debouches into the Gulf of Khambhat.

. Its length is 533km.

. It drains an area of 34,862 sq. km.

. The main tributaries are Som, Anas and Panam.

. Mahi river cuts tropic of cancer twice.

Luni (or the Salt River)

. Its water is brackish below Balotra.

. Its source lies to the west of Ajmer (Rajasthan) in the Aravallis.

. The river is known as the Sagarmati in its upper course and from Govindgarh, where Sarsuti joins it, becomes Luni. Finally, it is lost in the Rann of Kachchh.

List of Indian cities on rivers

River Length (km)

Ganga 2510

Krishna 1400

Godavari 1465

Yamuna 1376

Sutlej 1440

Narmada 1289

Wular Lake Jammu & Kashmir

Lonar Maharashtra

Kolleru Andhra Pradesh

Loktak Manipur

Dal Lake Jammu & Kashmir

Naini Tal Uttarakhand

Salt Lake Kolkata

Chilka Odisha

Pulicut Andhra Pradesh

Vembanad Kayal Kerala

Ashtamudi Kerala

Bhim Tal Uttarakhand

Lakes

Sambhar Rajasthan

Sukhna Chandigarh

Parashuram Kund Arunachal Pradesh

Pongong Tso Jammu & Kashmir

Tso Moran Jaimmu & Kashmir

Nakki Lake Rajasthan

Pushkar Lake Rajasthan

Udaipur Lake Rajasthan

Upper & Lower Lake Bhopal, MP

Nizam Sagar Hyderabad

1

Nagarjuna Sagar River Krishna

Multi-purpose Project

Andhra Pradesh

Irrigation, Hydroelectricity

2

Pochampad Project

River Godavari

Andhra Pradesh

Irrigation

3

Lower Sileru Project

River Silent (Godavari)

Andhra Pradesh

Hydroelectricity

4

Kakrapar Project

River Tapi

Gujarat

Irrigation

5

Kothagudem Project

Singareni Coaffields

Andhra Pradesh

Thermal power

6

Kosi Project

River Kosi

Bihar

Flood Control, Irrigation,Hydroelectricity

7

Gandak Project

River Gandak

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar

Irrigation, Hydroetectricity

8

Dhuvaran Power Station

Kheda District

Gujarat

Thermal Power

9

Sabarigiri (Pamba Kakki)

River Pamba-Kakki

Kerala Hydroelectricity

Project

10

Iduklci Project

Rivers Periyar, Cheruthoni,

Idukki

Kerala

Hydroelectricity

11

Chambal Project

River Chambal

Rajasthan, Madhya

Prades h

Irrigation, Hydroelectricity

12

Tawa Project

River Tawa (Narmada)

Madhya Pradesh

Irrigation

13

Korba Project

Near Korba Coalfields

Chhattisgarh

Thermal Power

14

Satpura Power Station

Patharkada Coalfields

Madhya Pradesh

Thermal Power

15

Koyna Project

River Koyna

Maharashtra

Hydroelectricity

16

Nagpur Power Station

Koradi, near Nagpur city

Maharashtra

Thermal Power

17

Tungabhadra Mufti-pur-

pose Project

River Tungabhadra

Karnataka, Andhra

Pradesh

Irrigation, Hydroelectricity

18

Upper Krishna Project

River Krishna

Karnataka

Irrigation

19

Shanvathi Project

River Sharavathi, Near Jog

Falls

Karriataka

Hydroelectricity

20

Hirakund multi-purpose River

Mahanadi Odisha Irrigation,

Hydroelectricity

Project

Mahanadi Delta Project

River Mahanadi Odisha

Irrigation

22

Bhakra Nangal Multi-pur-

pose Project

River Sutlej

Himachal Pradesh, Pun-

jab, Haryana

Irrigation, Hydroelectricity

23

Rajasthan Canal Project

River Sutlej in Punjab

Rajasthan, Headworks

inPunjab

Irrigation

24

Kundah Project

River Kundah

Tamil Nadu

Hydroelectricity

25

Ramganga Multipurpose

Project

Chuisot Stream near Kalagarh

Uttarakhand

Irrigation, Hydroelectricity

26

Matatila Multipurpose Project

River Betwa

Uttar Pradesh, Madhya

Pradesh

Irrigation, Hydroelectricity

27

Rihand Scheme

River Rihand

Uttar Pradesh

Hydroelectricity

28

Damodar Valley Project

River Damodar

Jharkhand, Shared with

West Bengal

Flood Control, Irrigation,

Hydroelectricity

29

Ukai Project

River Tapi

Gujarat

Irrigation

30

Mahi Project

River Mahi

Gujarat

Irrigation

31

Ghataprabha Project

River Ghataprabha

Andhra Pradesh and

Karnataka

Irrigation

32

Bhima Project

River Bhima Maharashtra

Irrigation

33

Sardar Sarovar Project River Narmada Gujarat and Madhya Irrigation and Hydroelectric

34

Bansagar Project

River Son

Madhya Pradesh,

Chhattisgarh

Irrigation

35

Diii Hasti Project

River Chenab

Jammu and Kashmir

Hydroelectricity

36

Salai Project

River Chenab

Jammu and Kashmir

Hydroelectricity

37

Their Dam Project

River Ravi

Punjab

Irrigation, Hydroelectricity

38

Malaprabha Project

River Malaprabha

Karriataka

Irrigation

39

Jayakwadi Project

River Godavari

Maharashtra

Irrigation

40

Beas Project

River Beas

Punjab and Haryana

Hydroelectricity

41

S harda Sahayak

River Ghaghra, Uttar Pradesh

Irrigation

42

Mayurakshi Project

River Mayurkhsi, West Bengal

Irrigation, Hydroelectricity

43

Rana Pratap Sagar project

River Chambal

Rajasthan

Hydroelectricity

44

Mettur Project

River Cauvery

Tamil Nadu

Hydroelectricity

45

Pallivasal Project

River Munnar Abuja

Kerala

Hydroelectricity

46

Papanasam Project

River Thamirabarani

Tamil Nadu

Hydroelectricity

47

Loktak Project Lake

Loktak

Manipur Hydroelectricity

Omkareshwar

River Narmada

Uttarakhand

48

Tehri Project

River Bhagirathi (Ganga)

Hydroelectricity

49

Farakka Project

Ganga

West Bengal

Irrigation

50

Daman Ganga

River Daman Ganga

Gujarat

Irrigation and River Link

51

Gima Project

River Gima (Tributary of Tapi)

Maharashtra

Irrigation and River Link

52

Pamba Project

River Pamba

Kerala

River Conservation and Irrigation

53

Tapovan-Vishnugarh

River Alaknanda

Uttarakhand

Hydroelectricity

54

Madhya Pradesh

Hydropower and Irrigation

River Disputing States

Krishna

Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka

Godavari

Maharashtra. Andhra Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh. Odisha. Karnataka

Cauvery

Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry

Narmada

Rajasthan. Madhya Pradesh. Gujarat. Maharashtra

Mahadayi/mandovi

Goa and Karnataka

Vansadhara

Andhra Pradesh and Odisha

Ravi and Beas

Punjab and Haryana

Mullaperiyar

Kerala and Tamil Nadu

Waterfall Height in Meters River Location

Kunchikal falls 455 Varahi Karnataka

Langshiang falls 337 Kynshi Meghalaya

Nohkallkai falls 335 Meghalaya

Nohshgithiang 315 Meghalaya

Dudhzagar falls 310 Mandovi Goa

Kynoem falls 305 Meghalaya

Meenmutty falls 300 Karimpuzha Kerala

Thalaiyar falls 297 MajjaJ.ar Tamil Nadu

Barkana falls 259 Sita Kamataka

Barchipani falls 399 Budhabalanga Orissa

.

View larger map