MAJOR ROCK SYSTEMS

India, being a large country, has diverse geology. The rock system of India is broadly divided into the systems mentioned below:

A. PRECAMBRIAN EON
    A.1 Archaean Rock System – 4 – 1.8 BYA
          1. Archaean Gneisses and Schists 
          2. Dharwar System 
   A.2 Purana Rock System – 1400 – 600 MYA
          3. Cuddapah rock system
          4. Vindhyan rock system

B. PHANEROZOIC EON
       B.1 Dravidian Rock System – 600 – 230 MYA
         Palaeozoic Era –  600 MYA – 230 MYA
          5. Dravidian rock system
         B.2 Aryan Rock System – 230 MYA – Present
          Mesozoic Era –  230 MYA – 65 MYA
           6. Gondwana System
           7. Jurassic rock system
           8. Cretaceous rock system
         Cenozoic Era –  65 MYA – Today
           9. Tertiary rock system
          10. Quarternary rock system

A. PRECAMBRIAN EON

A.1  Archaean Rock System
       4 – 1.8 BYA

• Archean rocks, also known as Pre-Cambrian rocks are the oldest rocks of the earth’s crust.
• The Archean period covers 86.7% of total geological history time of earth and therefore is very significant.

1. Archean Gneisses and Schists 

 4 billion years ago

• Oldest rocks [pre-Cambrian era] [formed about 4 billion years ago].
• Rocks formed due to solidification of molten magma.
• They serve as the basement complex or the foundation rocks for other rock systems.
• They are devoid of any fossils (Azoic).
• They mostly contain gneisses (granite, gabbro etc.) and schists (crystalline rocks such as mica, chlorite, talc etc.)
• Because of their volcanic origin, they are crystalline and consist of sheet-like layers (foliated).

Extent

• The Archean rock system in India is found in Aravalli mountains.
• 2/3rd of the Deccan peninsula and
• Some parts of north east.

Significance

• These rocks have abundant metallic and non-metallic minerals.

2. Dharwar rock system

2.5 billion to 1.8 billion years

• They are formed due to the metamorphosis of the sediments formed out of the Archean rocks.
• Since they were first studied in the Dharwar region of Karnataka, they were named so.
• They are rich in metallic minerals.
• These are the oldest metamorphic rocks of India.

Extent

• Dharwar region of Karnataka.
• But they are also found in Aravallis, Tamil Nadu, Chotanagpur plateau, Meghalaya, Delhi, and the Himalayas region.
• Dharwar rocks are divided into various series based on the region in which they are found and the type of metal contained in them.

Dharwar series

• • The Champions series containing gold mines lie within this system. This Champion system is named after the Champion reef in the Kolar Gold Fields. The Kolar Gold Fields contain one of the deepest gold mines of world. 
  • Champaner series that is found near Baroda. This is source of a lush green variety of marble. 
  • Closepet series that is found in Balaghat and Chhindwara of Madhya Pradesh. It is rich in Copper ores.
  • Chilpi Series that is found in and around the Closepet series in Balaghat and Chhindwara.
  • Iron-Ore series that is located in Singhbhum, Mayurbnhanj and Keonjhar rangaes.

Significance

• Economically the most important rocks because they possess valuable minerals like high grade iron-ore, manganese, copper, lead, gold, etc.
• They are considered to be the storehouses of metallic minerals and hence have a high economic significance.

A.2 Purana Rock System –

1400 – 600 MYA

• The Cuddapah and Vindhyan rock systems are together known as the Purana rock system.

3. Cuddapah rock system

• They were formed when sedimentary rocks like sandstone, limestone etc., and clay were deposited in synclinal folds (between two mountain ranges)

Extent

• Mainly found in the Cuddapah region of Andhra Pradesh.
• They are also found in Delhi, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, the lesser Himalayas etc.

Significance

• They are rich in metamorphic rocks such as shale, slate, quartzite etc.
• Even though metallic minerals like iron ore were found, they were of poor quality.

4. Vindhyan rock system

• This system derives its name from the great Vindhyan mountains.
• The system comprises of ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick) superimposed on the Archaean base.
• They are formed by the erosion and deposition of Archean and Dharwar rocks.
• Mostly Unfossiliferous.
• Large area of this belt is covered by the Deccan trap.
  
• Comprises of very old sedimentary rocks, hence are devoid of metallic minerals.

Extent

• They are mainly found in the Vindhyan mountain ranges, extending from Rajasthan to Bihar.

Significance

• They are diamond-bearing regions with Panna and Golconda diamonds being mined here.
• Though they are devoid of metallic minerals, they are abundant in building materials such as red sandstone, limestone, glass making sand etc.

B. PHANEROZOIC EON

B.1 Dravidian Rock System

Palaeozoic Era –  600 MYA – 230 MYA

5. Dravidian system

600-300 million years ago.

• The rocks of Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous periods are fall under Dravidian system. (All these are not important, only Carboniferous is important).
• They are abundant in fossils, and this period saw the beginning of coal formation.

Extent

• These are found in the extra-Peninsular regions of the Himalayas and the Gangetic plain.

Significance

• Carboniferous coal is of a higher quality, though it is not found abundantly in India.

B.2 Aryan Rock System

Mesozoic Era –  230 MYA – 65 MYA

They began to be formed since the Upper Carboniferous period. From the Gondwana rock system, Jurassic system, Deccan trap and Tertiary period, this rock system is made up of diverse kinds of rocks.

6. Gondwana System

250 million years ago.

• The Gondwana System [derives its name Gonds, the most primitive people of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh]. They are deposits laid down in synclinal troughs on ancient plateau surface.
• This system is named after the huge carbon deposits contained within them.
• As the sediments accumulated, the loaded troughs subsided.
• This makes them the largest source of coal in India, containing up to 98 percent of our coal deposits.
• Gondwana coal is much younger than the Carboniferous coal and hence it’s carbon content is low.
• This system contains famous Damuda and Panchet series which are famous for coal deposits.
• This happened since Permian period (250 million years ago).

Extent

• The important coal bearing areas of this series are Raniganj, Jharia, Karanpur, and Bokaro of the Damodar basin in Odisha, and the Pench valley in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, the jhingurda coal seam (Chhattisgarh). 
• Damodar and Sone River valley and Rajmahal hills in the eastern India is depository of the Gondwana rocks.

Significance

• Apart from coal, they are also a source of metallic minerals such as iron, manganese, antimony, uranium etc.

7. Jurassic rock system

200 – 145 MYA

• This period witnessed marine transgressions on both west and east coasts.
• The marine transgression in the latter part of the Jurassic gave rise to thick series of shallow water deposits in Rajasthan and in Kuchchh.
• Another transgression on the east coast of the Peninsula is found between Guntur and Rajahmundry.

Extent

• Shallow water deposits in Rajasthan and the Kutchch region on the west and Guntur and Rajahmundry areas of Andhra Pradesh.

Significance

• Coral limestone, sandstone, conglomerates and shales occur in Kuchchh.
• Prominent deposits in this rock system include limestone, shale, sandstone etc.

8. Cretaceous rock system

145.5–66.0 MYA

• This was formed when the Indian plate came over the Reunion hotspot in the Indian Ocean while travelling north towards the Eurasian plate, after breaking up from the Gondwana plate.
• Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq km.
  
• The continuous outpouring of magma, from the fissures over the Indian plate led to the formation of a layered structure called the Deccan Traps.
• These are formed by the flow of magma over the solidified rock systems/cooled magma in layers.
• The process of weathering and erosion (denudation) since millions of years has reduced the Deccan Trap to almost half of its original size.
• The thickness of the Deccan traps decreases from west to east, with around 3000m in the west to just 150m in the east, and around 800m in the south

Extent

• Basaltic lava covered an area of 5 lakh sq.km. encompassing the regions like Kutchch, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, Malwa plateau and north Karnataka.

Significance

• Due to the forces of weathering and erosion, this rock system gave birth to a new soil variety known as the Black Cotton soil or Regur.

Cenozoic Era –  65 MYA – Today

9. Tertiary rock system

65 – 2.5 MYA

• Eocene to Pliocene about 60 to 7 million years ago.
• The tertiary is the most significant period in India’s geological history because the Himalayas were born and India’s present form came into being in this period.

 Extent

• Important rock systems include Karewas of Kashmir, Bhangra and Khadar of the Gangetic plains etc.

10. Quarternary rock system

2.5 – 0 MYA

• They were formed during the Pleistocene and the process continued in the Eocene.
• Since they are of recent origin, they have good organic content (fossils)

Extent

• These are largely found in the plains of north India (Sutlej-Ganga-Brahmaputra plains) and also in the Karewas of Kashmir valley.

Significance

• Agriculture

MCQ

[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”]
The Ravva offshore block, with great potential for oil, is located in :[1999]
(a)Krishna-Godavari basin (b)Cauvery basin (c)Mahanadi basin (d)Palar-Pennar basin
Ans. (a)The Ravva offshore block is in Krishna–Godavari basin of Andhra Pradesh. It is the area of a great reserve of petroleum and natural gas. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”]          The palaeomagnetic results obtained from India indicate that in the past, the Indian land mass has moved: [1995]
(a)northward (b)southward (c)eastward (d)westward

Ans. (a)The palaeomagnetic results indicates that, the Indian land mass has moved to the north breaking from Africa. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”]          The Indian subcontinent was originally a part of a huge mass called:[1995] (a)Jurassic land mass (b)Aryavarta (c)Indiana (d)Gondwana continent

Ans..(d)Geologists believes that the Indian peninsula was a part of the Gondwanaland (continent) which drifted northwards and India, Africa and other parts separated from each other. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”]          Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer:[1997]
List-I                                                    List-II
A. Deccan Traps                                1.Late Cenozoic
B. Western Ghats                              2.Pre-Cambrian
C. Aravalli                                           3.Cretaceous Eocene
D. Narmada-Tapi                              4.Cambrian alluvial deposits
5.Pleistocene
Codes:

(a)A – 3; B – 5; C – 1; D – 4
(b)A – 3; B – 1; C – 2; D – 5
(c)A – 2; B – 1; C – 3; D – 4
(d)A – 1; B – 4; C – 2; D – 5

Ans..(b)Major Geological Eras Peninsularand Periods A.Deccan Traps–Cretaceous era B.Western Ghats–Late cenozoic era C.Aravalli–Pre-cambrian era D.Narmada-Tapti–Pleistocene period alluvial deposits [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”]
The Ravva offshore block, with great potential for oil, is located in :[1999]
(a)Krishna-Godavari basin (b)Cauvery basin (c)Mahanadi basin (d)Palar-Pennar basin
Ans. (a)The Ravva offshore block is in Krishna–Godavari basin of Andhra Pradesh. It is the area of a great reserve of petroleum and natural gas. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”]
Which one of the following is the appropriate reason to considering the Gondwana rocks as most important of rock systems of India?[2010]
(a)More than 90% of limestone reserves of India are found in them
(b)More than 90% of India’s coal reserves are found in them
(c)More than 90% of fertile black cotton soils are spread over them
(d)None of the reasons given above is appropriate in this context
Ans..(b)More than 90% of India’s coal reserves are found in Gondwana rock system. [/tippy]

.

Introduction

• The drainage system or pattern of an area refers to the system of flow of surface water mainly through the rivers and basins forms.
• The drainage system studies streams and the directions in which they carry the surface water of an area.
• The drainage system is related to a number of factors, for example slope of land, geological structure, amount of volume of water and velocity of water.
• The surface run off of India is carried by a number of small and large rivers.
• The drainage system of country can be studied with reference to two parts Northern India and Southern India.

Major Drainage System 🗺️

1. 1. The Indus River System
   2. The Ganga River System
   3. The Brahmaputra River System
   4. The Peninsular River System

1. The Indus River System

• The Indus is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayan river of South and Central Asia.
• The 3,180 km  river rises in Western Tibet, flows northwest through the Ladakh and Gilgit-Baltistan regions of Kashmir, bends sharply to the left after the Nanga Parbat massif, and flows south-by-southwest through Pakistan, before it empties into the Arabian Sea near the port city of Karachi.
• The river has a total drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km2 .
• Its estimated annual flow is around 243 km3 (58 cu mi), making it one of the 50 largest rivers in the world in terms of average annual flow.
• Its left-bank tributary in Ladakh is the Zanskar River, and its left-bank tributary in the plains is the Panjnad River which itself has five major tributaries, namely the Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers.
• Its principal right-bank tributaries are the Shyok, Gilgit, Kabul, Kurram, and Gomal rivers.

Primary Tributaries 

Jhelum

• The Jhelum rises in a spring at verinag in the south-eastern part of the Kashmir valley.
• It flows northwards from its source to Wular Lake and further down south-westwards.
• Tributaries
  • left Poonch River Sukhnag River
  • right Arpath River, Lidder River, Neelum River, Sind River, Kunhar River
• At Muzaffarabad, the river takes a sharp hairpin swing southward and the Kishaganga joins at on its right bank.
• Thereafter, it forms the India-Pakistan boundary for 170 km and emerges at the Potwar Plateau near Mirpur.
• It has total length of 724 km. It’s average  water discharge 313.19 m3/s.
• It joins the Chenab at Trimmu.
• The river is navigable for about 160 km out of a total length of 724 km.
• 💦The Tulbul Project– The project has been commissioned on the river Jhelum in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
• 💦The Uri Dam– The dam has been constructed on the river Jhelum in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
• 💦Kishanganga Power station (3x110MW) is located on Kishanganga River, a tributary of river Jhelum in Bandipora District of Union Territory of Jammu & Kashmir.
• 💦Wular Barrage on the Wular Lake(a Ramsar wetland site) is constructed.
• 💦Hokera Wetland

Chenab

• It is the largest tributary of the Indus.
• It originates near the Bara Lacha Pass in the Lahul-Spiti part of the Zaskar Range.
• The united stream (Chandra and Bhaga) called the Chandrabhaga flows in the north-west direction through Himachal Pradesh and enters Jammu & Kashmir as Chenab river.
• It enters the plain area near Akhnur in J&K. 
• It receives waters of Jhelum and Ravi rivers.
• The total length of the river is 1,180 km. Average Water discharge 977.3 m3/s 
• 💦The Dul Hasti Dam– The dam has been constructed on the river Chenab in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
• 💦The Salal Dam– The dam has been constructed on the river Chenab at Dhyangarh in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
• 💦The Baglihar Dam– The dam has been constructed on the river Chenab near Batote in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Ravi

• It originates from Kullu hills near the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh.
• It cuts a deep gorge in the Ohaula Dhar range after crossing Chamba.
• It enters Punjab Plains near Madhopur and later enters Pakistan 26 km below Amritsar.
• It debouches into the Chenab a little above Rangpur in Pakistani Punjab.
• Its total catchment area is 14,442 sq. 1cm of which only 5,957 sq. kin lies in India
• 💦The Upper Bari Doab Canal (Thein Dam)– It draws its water from the Ravi river. It starts from Madhopur near Pathankot(in Punjab). The canal provides irrigation to the northern districts of Punjab, mainly Pathankot, Gurdaspur, Amritsar and Tarn Taran. The dam has been constructed on the river Ravi near Pathankot in the state of Punjab. It is also known as Ranjit Sagar Dam. It is the largest hydroelectric project of Punjab.
• 💦The Chamera Dam– The dam has been constructed on the river Ravi in Chamba district, Himachal Pradesh. The dam fulfils the hydroelectric needs of the region.

Beas

• The Beas originates near the Rohtang pass, at a height of 4,062 m above sea level, on the southern and of the Nr Panjal Range, close to the source of the Ravi.
• It is a comparatively small river which is only 460 km long bout lies entirely within the Indian territory
• It crosses the Dhaula Dhar range through a deep gorge from Lorji to Talwara.
• It debouches on the plain near Pong and meets the Satluj river at Harike.
• It lies entirely within the Indian territory.
• 💦The Pong Dam-The dam has been constructed on the river Beas in the state of Himachal Pradesh.
• 💦The water reservoir created by the dam, Maharana Pratap Sagar is a Ramsar wetland site. It’s all length is shown as Ramsar site.
• ⚖️Ravi and Beas water sharing dispute among Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan.

Satluj river

• It rises from the Mansarovar – Rakas Lake near Darma Pass in western Tibet, where it is also known as Langcher Khambab.
• In Nazi Khorsan province of Tibet, it has created an extraordinary canyon.
• It is joined by the Spiti river at Namgia near the Shipki La.
• Before entering the Purijab Plain, it cuts a gorge in Naina Devi Dhar (Bhakra Dam has been constructed here).
• It enters the plain at Rupnagar (Ropar).
• It is joined by the Beas at Harike.
• From near Ferozepur to Faziilca, it forms the boundary between India and Pakistan for nearly 120 km.
• It joins the Indus a few kilometers above Mithankot.
• Out of its total length of 1,450 lan, it flows for 1,050 km in Indian territory.

• 💦The Indira Gandhi Canal Project– It is one of the largest and the longest (600km) canal project in the world. The Indira Gandhi Canal starts from the Harike Barrage at Harike(in Punjab), the confluence point of the rivers Satluj and Beas, to southward till Barmer(in Rajasthan). The canal has transformed the barren areas of Rajasthan into prosperous agricultural fields. Besides providing water for agriculture, the canal supplies drinking water to hundreds of people in far-flung areas.
• 💦The Bhakra Nangal Project– This multipurpose river valley project was constructed for supplying electricity to the power-hungry north-western India and to extend irrigation facilities in the north-western Haryana and south-western Punjab. Bhakra Dam and Nangal Dam have been constructed on the river Satluj in the state of Himachal Pradesh. The water reservoir behind the Bhakra Dam is known as Gobind Sagar.
• 💦The Sirhind Canal– It draws its water from the Satluj river. It starts at Rupnagar/Ropar(in Punjab). The canal provides irrigation in Ludhiana, Ferozepur, Sangrur, Bathinda and Patiala districts of Punjab.

Indus Water Treaty – 1960

• Under the treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960, all the waters of three rivers, namely Ravi, Sutlej and Beas ( Eastern Rivers) were allocated to India for exclusive use.
• While, the waters of Western rivers – Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab were allocated to Pakistan except for specified domestic , non-consumptive and agricultural use permitted to India as provided in the Treaty.
• According to treaty, all the water of eastern rivers shall be available for unrestricted use in India.
• India should let unrestricted flow of water from western rivers to Pakistan.
• It doesn’t mean that India can’t use western river’s water. The treaty says that India can use the water in western rivers in “non-consumptive” needs. Here non consumptive means we can use it for irrigation, storage and even for electricity production. (But India has not fully utilized this provision so far). The treaty allocates 80% of water from the six-river Indus water system to Pakistan.

💡Diamer-Bhasha Dam

2. The Ganga River System

• The Ganga is the most important river of India both from the point of view of its basin and cultural significance.
• The Ganges  is a trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through India and Bangladesh.
• The 2,525 km river rises in the western Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttarakhand.
• It flows south and east through the Gangetic plain of North India, where it receives tributaries from Nepal that account for the bulk of its flow.
• It then enters Bangladesh, meets other rivers, and eventually breaks up, forming the major portion of the Ganges Delta, and emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
• The Ganges system (Ganges/Brahmaputra/Meghna)  is the third largest river on earth by discharge (38,129 m3/s) after first Amazon and second Congo .
• It rises in the Gangotri (1) glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarakhand where it is known as the Bhagirathi.
• At Devprayag (2) , the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda and both makes Ganga. The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which meet at Vishnuprayag (3) .
• Pindar joins Alaknanda at Karnaprayag while Mandakini meets it at Rudraprayag.
• At Haridwar (4) , Ganga enters into plains.
• 💦The Tehri Dam- It is the highest dam in India. It is constructed on the Bhagirathi river at Tehri in the state of Uttarakhand. The dam is a lifeline for many people as it generates electricity, provides irrigation and municipal water supply to lakhs of people. The dam is in a highly earthquake prone area(Zone V). Noted environmentalist Sunderlal Bahuguna had led the Anti-Tehri Dam movement (Chipko) for many years.

The course of the Ganga river

• The Ganga is called the Bhagirathi above Devprayag and below this town, the Ganga. The Ganga initially flows in the southern direction, then in the south-east direction up to Mirzapur and then in the east direction in the Bihar plains. Near the Rajmahal hills, it turns into south-east direction and after flowing some distance in Murshidabad district of West Bengal, it enters Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, it gets divided into two main distributaries- the Bhagirathi and the Hugli. The main river goes to Bangladesh where it is firstly known by the name of the Padma and then the Meghna which drains into the Bay of Bengal.

The Five Prayags

1. Devaprayag, the place of confluence of Bhagirathi river and Alaknanda river.
2. Rudraprayag, the place of confluence of Mandakini river and Alaknanda river.
3. Nandaprayag, the place of confluence of Nandakini river and Alaknanda river.
4. Karnaprayag, the place of confluence of Pindar river and Alaknanda river.
5. Vishnuprayag, the place of confluence of Dhauliganga river and Alaknanda river.

Major Tributaries of the Ganga River

• Left Bank Tributaries of the Ganga River
  • Ramganga River
  • Gomti River
  • Ghaghra River
  • Kali River
  • Gandak River
  • Burhi Gandak
  • Kosi River

• Right Bank Tributaries of the Ganga River
  • Yamuna River
    • Chambal River
    • Banas River
    • Sind River
    • Betwa River
  • Ken River
  • Son River
  • Damodar River

Left Bank Tributaries

The Ramganga River

• It is a left-bank tributary of the Ganga.
• It rises in the Kamaun range of the Himalayas near Nainital in Uttarakhand.
• It enters the Ganga plains near Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh.
• 💦The Ramganga Project- It is an irrigation and a hydro-electric project on the Ramganga river, a tributary of Ganga. It is located in the Jim Corbett National Park region.

The Gomati River

• It is a left-bank tributary of the Ganga.
• It rises from Gomat Tall in the Pilibhit district of Uttar Pradesh.
• It joins the Ganga at Ghazipur in Uttar Pradesh before flowing through the cities of Lucknow and Jaunpur.

The Ghaghara River

• It is a left-bank tributary of the Ganga.
• It rises from Mapcha Chung Glacier in Tibet region.
• The river is known by the name of Karnali in Nepal.
• It joins the Ganga at Chhapra.
• The Sarda river and the Rakti river are its important tributaries.

The Sarda River

• It rises from the Milam Glacier in the Great Himalayas in Nepal.
• It flows along the Indo-Nepal border before leaving the Himalayas at Baramdeo.
• The river is known by different names- Kali, Sarda, Kheri, Chauka.
• It joins the Ghaghara river at Bahramghat.

The Gandak River

• It is a left-bank tributary of the Ganga.
• It rises from the Great Himalayas in Nepal.
• The river is known by the name of Kalyani in Nepal.
• It joins the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna, Bihar.
• 💦The Gandak Project- It is a joint project of the Indian states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and Nepal. It is constructed on the river Gandak. A barrage is constructed at Valmikinagar, Bihar. Electricity is generated at Suratpura power station in Nepal which caters the power needs of Tarai region.

The Kosi River

• It is a left-bank tributary of the Ganga.
• The Arun, the Sun Kosi and the Tamur rivers which drain Mount Everest and the Kanchenjunga hills in east Nepal unite to form the Kosi river in the north region of Mahabharta range of the Himalayas.
• It is an antecedent river.
• The Kosi flows through the Tarai region of Nepal. The catchment area of the river receives immense rainfall leading to floods.
• The river has changed its course and ruined a large area. Because of the havoc created and the floods, the Kosi is termed as Bihar’s “River of Sorrow”.
• 💦The Kosi Project- Kosi Barrage has been constructed along the Indo-Nepal border. It is an irrigation, flood control and hydro-electricity generation project on the Kosi River built under a bilateral agreement between Nepal and India.

The Mahananda River

• It rises in the Darjeeling hills. It is the last left-bank tributary of the Ganga river in India.

Left Bank Tributaries

The Yamuna River

• It is the right-bank tributary of the Ganga.
• It rises from the Yamunotri glacier on the Banderpunch range.
• After cutting a deep gorge across the Shivaliks, it flows south-west and enters the Ganga plain at Paonta Sahib.
• It flows southwards till Agra and moves south-east till it merges with the Ganga at Allahabad.
• The Tons river, the Chambal river, the Sind river, the Betwa river and the Ken river are its four main right-bank tributaries.
• The Hindon, the Sharda river, the Varuna river, the Giri river are its major left-bank tributaries.

The Chambal River

• The Chambal river rises from a place near Mhow in the Vindhyan range in Madhya Pradesh.
• Firstly, it flows northwards in a gorge up to Kota, Rajasthan. Below Kota, it flows in the north-east direction till Pinahat.
• Then it runs east and parallel to the Yamuna before merging in it at Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh. Banas river, Kali Sindh river and Parvati river are its major tributaries.
• 💦The Chambal Project– This is a joint venture of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh initiated in 1954 on the Chambal River (the main tributary of the Yamuna). The project aims at harnessing the Chambal River for irrigation, power generation and for prevention and control of soil erosion in the valley. The project has been executed in three successive stages.
  The first stage consists of construction of the 64 m high and 514 m long Gandhisagar dam about 8 km downstream of the Chaurasigarh fort in Bhanupura tehsil at the border of M.P. and Rajasthan.
  The second stage includes the construction of the 54 m high and 1,143 m long Rana Pratap masonry dam at Rawatbhata about 56 km downstream of the Gandhisagar dam.
  The third stage consists of the construction of a 45 m high and 548 m long gravity dam, known as the Jawahar Sagar dam or Kota dam, about 29 km upstream of Kota city.

SON RIVER

• The Son, 784km long, originates near Amarkantak in MP, just east of the headwater of the Narmada River, and flows north-northwest through MP before turning sharply eastward where it encounters the southwest-northeast running Kaimur Range
• The Son parallels the Kaimur hills, flowing east-northeast through UP, Jharkhand, and Bihar states to join the Ganga just above Patna
• Geologically. The lower valley of the Son is an extension of the Narmada Valley, and the Kaimur Range an extension of the Vindhya Range
• Dehri is the major town situated on Son River.
• Tributaries of Son river
  • Right – Gopad Rive, Rihand River, Kanhar River, North Koel River
  • Left – Ghaggar River, Johila River, Chhoti Mahanadi River
• Its chief tributaries are the Rihand and the North Koel. It is largely forested and sparsely populated.
• 💦The Rihand Project– It is the most important multipurpose project of Uttar Pradesh. A dam is constructed on Rihand river near Pipri in Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh. Rihand river is a tributary of Son river. Son Canal is also constructed which supplies water to Bihar. Reservoir-Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar is constructed on the Uttar Pradesh-/Chhattisgarh border.

The Damodar River

• It rises in the Chhotanagpur Plateau and flows in the eastern direction in Jharkhand. The river passes through a rift valley. It joins the right-bank of Hoogly river near Fulta. The Barakar river is an important tributary of Damodar📌.
• 💦The Damodar Valley Project– It is India’s first multipurpose river valley project. It was started in 1948 based on the Tennessee River Valley Corporation of the USA. Important dams under the project are- Panchet Dam on the Damodar river; Tailaiya Dam, Maithon Dam and Bal Pahari Dam on the Barakar river(a tributary of Damodar); Konar Dam on the river Konar(a tributary of Damodar); Bakora Dam on the Bokaro river(a tributary of Damodar). Also, the Durgapur barrage on the Damodar river in Durgapur has been created for the storage of irrigation water.

Namami Gange Programme:

• • Namami Gange Programme is an Integrated Conservation Mission, approved as a ‘Flagship Programme’ by the Union Government in June 2014 to accomplish the twin objectives of effective abatement of pollution and conservation and rejuvenation of National River Ganga.
  • It is being operated under the Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti.
  • The program is being implemented by the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG), and its state counterpart organizations i.e State Program Management Groups (SPMGs).
  • NMCG is the implementation wing of National Ganga Council (set in 2016; which replaced the National Ganga River Basin Authority – NGRBA).
  • It has a Rs. 20,000-crore, centrally-funded, non-lapsable corpus and consists of nearly 288 projects.
  • The main pillars of the programme are:
    • Sewage Treatment Infrastructure
    • River-Front Development
    • River-Surface Cleaning
    • Biodiversity
    • Afforestation
    • Public Awareness
    • Industrial Effluent Monitoring
    • Ganga Gram

Ghaggar River

Source of origin of the Ghaggar river: It rises from a place in the Nahan Hills in the state of Himachal Pradesh.

Confluence or mouth of the Ghaggar river: The Ghaggar is also an ephemeral river. It drains itself in the northern Rajasthan.

Major Tributaries of the Ghaggar river:

• The Kaushalya River
• The Markanda River
• The Sarsuti River
• The Tangri River

Course of the Ghaggar river:

The Ghaggar flows through the states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.

Other characteristics of the Ghaggar river system:

• The Ghaggar river is seasonal in nature and is dependent on monsoonal rainfall.

3. Brahmaputra River System

• The Brahmaputra , also known as the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet, the Siang/Dihang River in Arunachal Pradesh, and Luit, Dilao in Assam, is a trans-boundary river which flows through Tibet, India, and Bangladesh. 
• It is the 9th largest river in the world by discharge, and the 15th longest.

Course of the Brahmaputra River

• With its origin in the Manasarovar Lake region, near the Mount Kailash, located on the northern side of the Himalayas in Burang County of Tibet as the Yarlung Tsangpo River, it flows along southern Tibet to break through the Himalayas in great gorges (including the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon) and into Arunachal Pradesh.
• It flows southwest through the Assam Valley as Brahmaputra and south through Bangladesh as the Jamuna (not to be confused with Yamuna of India).
• In the vast Ganges Delta, it merges with the Padma, the popular name of the river Ganges in Bangladesh, and finally, after merging with Padma, it becomes the Meghna and from here, it flows as Meghna river before emptying into the Bay of Bengal.

Tributaries of the Brahmaputra River

The Dhansiri River

• It is the left-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra river.
• It rises from Liasang peak of Nagaland.
• It is the main river of the Golaghat district of Assam and the Dimapur district of Nagaland.

The Lohit River

• It is an important left-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra river.
• It rises in the eastern Tibet region. The Lohit river flows through the Mishmi Hills.
• It joins the left-bank of the Brahmaputra at Sadia town in the state of Arunachal Pradesh.
• The main human habitations along the river are the cities of Lohit and Brahmakund.
• The catchment area of the Lohit river is covered extensively by thick forests.
• The newly constructed massive Dhola-Sadia bridge or the Bhupen Hazarika bridge spans the Lohit river.

The Dibang River

• It is the left-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra river.
• It is one of the principal tributaries of the Brahmaputra river.
• It flows through the states of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
• It enters the plain area in Lower Dibang Valley district of Arunachal Pradesh.
• It enters Assam plains near Roing.

The Subansiri River

• It is the right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra river.
• It rises in the Tibet region in the Himalayas.
• It flows east and southeast through the Lower Subansiri district in Arunachal Pradesh, and then south to the Assam valley, where it joins the right-bank of the Brahmaputra river in the Lakhimpur district of Assam.
• The Subasi River is known as the Gold River by the locals.
• This river is famous all over the world for its gold dust.

The Kameng River

• It is the right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra river.
• It rises in the Tawang district in the eastern Himalayas.
• It forms the border between the East Kameng district and the West Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh.
• In Assam, it flows through the Sonitpur district before joining the Brahmaputra at Tezpur.
• The Kameng River consists of two sections- the west consisting of the Akka hills and resided by the Akka tribes and the east consisting of the Dafla hills resided by the Daphla tribe.
• The Kaziranga National Park and the Pakkhui Wildlife Sanctuary are located near the Kameng river.

The Manas River

• It is the right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra river.
• It is a trans-boundary river in the Himalayan foothills between southern Bhutan and India.
• It is named after Manasa, the serpent god in the Hindu mythology.
• Royal Manas National Park of Bhutan and the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary are located in the Manas River valley.
• The Manas river flows through Bhutan and Assam in India before it joins the right-bank of the Brahmaputra river.

The Sankosh River

• It is the right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra river.
• It is a trans0boundary river and it flows through Bhutan, India, and Bangladesh.
• It rises in the northern Bhutan region.
• It then flows through the region bordering the West Bengal district of Jalpaiguri and the districts of Dhubri and Kokrajhar in Assam.
• It then crosses over to Bangladesh where it is known by the name of Dudhkumar River.
• The river finally joins the right-bank of the Brahmaputra river near the Indo-Bangladesh border.

The Teesta River

• It is the right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra river.
• The Teesta rises from Zemu glacier in Kanchenjunga massif in Sikkim.
• The Teesta river drains the entire state of Sikkim and a part of Darjeeling Hills.
• It is known as the lifeline of Sikkim.
• The Teesta flows along a very deep gorge which divides north Bengal or the hills of Darjeeling into two parts-Tiger Hill range in the west and the Kalimpong Hill range in the east.
• It joins the Brahmaputra on its right-bank in Bangladesh.

B. The Peninsular River System

The Western Ghats running close to the western coast is the main water divide between the major Peninsular rivers, discharging their waters in the Bay of Bengal and as small rivulets joining the Arabian Sea.

Most of the major Peninsular rivers except Narmada, Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi flow towards the west. Mahanadi, Kaveri, Godavari, Krishna rivers have a fixed course and there is an absence of meanders, and the flow of water is non-perennial. And Narmada and Tapi flow through the rift valley.

West flowing rivers

The Narmada River System

• The Narmada is a river located in central India.
• It rises to the summit of the Amarkantak Hill in Madhya Pradesh state.
• It outlines the traditional frontier between North India and South India.
• It is one of the major rivers of peninsular India. Only the Narmada, the Tapti, and the Mahi rivers run from east to west.
• The river flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
• It drains into the Arabian Sea in the Bharuch district of Gujarat.

• Major River Valley Projects/Dams/Barrages associated with the Narmada river system:

  • 💦 Sardar Sarovar Dam– The dam is part of the Narmada River Valley Project. It is the second-largest in the world in terms of volume and size. The dam is located near Songadh in the state of Gujarat. Though the foundation stone of the Sardar Sarovar Dam was laid in 1961 by India’s first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru, it has been inaugurated very recently in 2017 since it was marred by controversies. According to the government, the dam will prove instrumental in increasing the agricultural output and revenue of the region and will serve as a major power producer in the country.
  • 💦 Indira Sagar Dam– It is also part of the Narmada River Valley Project. This multi-purpose dam is built on the Narmada river in Narmada Nagar in the Khandwa district in the state of Madhya Pradesh.
  • 💦Bargi Dam– It is one of the first completed dams under the Narmada River Valley Project. The dam is located on the Narmada river in Jabalpur district in the state of Madhya Pradesh.
  • 💦 Tawa Dam- The dam has been constructed across the Tawa river (a tributary of Narmada) in the Hoshangabad District of Madhya Pradesh.
  • 💦 Maan Dam– Built under the Narmada River Valley Project, the dam is constructed across the Maan river (a tributary of Narmada) in Dhar district in the state of Madhya Pradesh.
  • 💦Jobat Dam– It is also part of the Narmada River Valley Project. The dam is constructed across the Hathni river (a tributary of Narmada) in Alirajpur district in the state of Madhya Pradesh.

   

⚖️ Narmada water sharing dispute among Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan.

• Other facts related to the Narmada river system:

  • The river flows in a rift valley between the Vindhyas in the north and the Satpura in the south.
  • The river forms a picturesque gorge in marble rocks.
  • The Narmada forms the Dhaundhar waterfalls, southwest of Jabalpur.
  • It forms the traditional boundary between North India and South India.

The Tapi River System

• It is a central Indian river. It is one of the most important rivers of peninsular India with the run from east to west.
• It originates in the Eastern Satpura Range of southern Madhya Pradesh state.
• It flows in a westward direction, draining some important historic places like Madhya Pradesh’s Nimar region, East Vidarbha region and Maharashtra’s Khandesh in the northwest corner of the Deccan Plateau and South Gujarat before draining into the Gulf of Cambay of the Arabian Sea.
• The River Basin of Tapi River lies mostly in eastern and northern districts Maharashtra state.
• The river also covers some districts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat as well.
• The principal tributaries of Tapi River are Waghur River, Aner River, Girna River, Purna River, Panzara River and Bori River.

• Major River Valley Projects/Dams/Barrages associated with the Tapi river system:

  • The Ukai Project– The project is a joint venture between the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra. A dam is constructed on the Tapi river in Ukai in the state of Gujarat.
  • The Kakrapar Project– The project is flagship irrigation and hydro-electric project of the state of Gujarat. A dam is constructed at Kakrapar.

  Other facts related to the Tapi river system:

  • The Tapi river like the Narmada river also flows in a rift valley.

Sabarmati River

The Sabarmati river rises from the Aravalis in Udaipur district in the state of Rajasthan.

The Sabarmati river drains into the Gulf of Khambat (the Arabian Sea).

Major Tributaries of the Sabarmati River:

• The Wakal River
• The Harnav River
• The Hathmati River
• The Vatrak River
• The MAdhumati River
• The Sei River

Course of the Sabarmati River:

The Sabarmati river flows through the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Major River Valley Projects/Dams/Barrages associated with the Sabarmati river system:

• The Dharoi Dam– It is constructed across the Sabarmati river in Dharoi in the Mehsana district in the state of Gujarat. It is a multi-purpose dam constructed to serve the north Gujarat region with irrigation, electricity generation and flood control purposes.

Other facts related to the Sabarmati river system:

• Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad are two main cities standing on its banks.
• The Sabarmati is a seasonal river receiving varied rainfall and has been frequented by floods in the past.
• Gandhi, father of the nation, established an ashram on the banks of this river, the Sabarmati Ashram, an embodiment of peace, struggle, sacrifice, courage, and hard work.

Mahi River

• The Mahi basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat having total area of 34,842 Sq km.
• It is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north and the north-west, by Malwa Plateau on the east, by the Vindhyas on the south and by the Gulf of Khambhat on the west.
• Mahi is one of the major interstate west flowing rivers of India.
• It originates from the northern slopes of Vindhyas at an altitude of 500 m in Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh.
• The total length of Mahi is 583 km.
• It drains into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Khambhat.
• The major part of basin is covered with agricultural land accounting to 63.63% of the total area
• Hydro Power stations are located in Mahi Bajaj Sagar dam and at Kadana Dam.
• Vadodara is the only important urban centre in the basin. There are not many industries in the basin.
• Some of the industries are cotton textile, paper, newsprint, drugs and pharmaceuticals. Most of these industries are located at Tatlam.

Luni River

The Luni River is the longest river system of Rajasthan.

Source of origin of the Luni river: It rises from a place near Pushkar in two branches- Saraswati and Sabarmati which join with each other at Govindgarh. From here, the river comes out of the Aravalis and is known as Luni.

Confluence or mouth of the Luni river: The Luni is an Ephemeral river. The Luni river discharges water on land and develops Rann of Kachchh.

Major Tributaries of the Luni river:

• The Bandi River
• The Khari River
• The Jawai River
• The Guhiya River
• The Sukri River

Course of the Luni river:

The Luni river flows in westward direction till Telwara and then takes a southwest direction to drain into the Rann of Kachchh. The basin of the river extends over parts of Ajmer, Barmer, Jalore, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali, Rajsamand, Sirohi and Udaipur districts.

Major River Valley Projects/Dams/Barrages associated with the Luni river system:

• Sardar Samand Irrigation Project– Under the project, a dam has been constructed in the Pali district in the state of Rajasthan.
• Jawai Dam– It is constructed across the Luni River and is located in the Pali district in the state of Rajasthan.

Other facts related to the Luni river system:

• Due to its high saline content, the Luni river is also known as the Lavanaravi or Lavanavati, which means “salt river” in the Sanskrit language.

East flowing rivers

The Godavari River System

• The Godavari River is the second-longest course in India with brownish water.
• The river is often referred to as the Dakshin (South) Ganga or Vriddh (Old) Ganga.
• It is a seasonal river, dried during the summers, and widens during the monsoons.
• This river originates from Trimbakeshwar, near Nasik in Maharashtra.
• It flows southeast across south-central India through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa, and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
• The river forms a fertile delta at Rajahmundry.
• The banks of this river have many pilgrimage sites, Nasik(MH), Bhadrachalam(TS), and Trimbak. Some of its tributaries include Pranahita (Combination of Penuganga and Warda), Indravati River, Bindusara, Sabari, and Manjira.
• Asia’s largest rail-cum-road bridge which links Kovvur and Rajahmundry is located on the river Godavari.

• Major River Valley Projects/Dams/Barrages associated with the Godavari river system:

  • The Gangapur Dam– The dam has been constructed across the Godavari in Nashik district in the state of Maharashtra. The reservoir created by the dam is known as Gangapur Bandh Sagar.
  • The Jayakwadi Dam– The dam has been constructed across the Godavari river near Paithan in the state of Maharashtra. It aims to address the dual problems of flooding along the banks during monsoon months, and that of drought during the rest of the year, particularly in Marathwada region.
  • The Sriram Sagar Project– The project has been executed across the Godavari river in Nizamabad district in the state of Telangana.
  • The Polavaram Project– The Polavaram project is being executed across the Godavari river in the state of Andhra Pradesh.
  • The Dowleswaram Barrage– The barrage was built by Sir Arthur Cotton, a British engineer in 1852. It is located in Rajahmundry in the state of Andhra Pradesh.

⚖️Water sharing dispute among Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha.

The Krishna River System

• Krishna is one of the longest rivers of India, which originates from Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra.
• It flows through Sangli and drains the sea in the Bay of Bengal.
• The river flows through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
• Tungabhadra River is the main tributary which itself is formed by the Tunga and Bhadra rivers that originate in the Western Ghats.
• Dudhganga Rivers, Koyna, Bhima, Mallaprabha, Dindi, Ghataprabha, Warna, Yerla, and Musi are some of the other tributaries.

• Major River Valley Projects/Dams/Barrages associated with the Krishna river system:

  • 💦The Tungabhadra Project– The project aims at producing hydro-electricity, providing irrigation water and municipal water supply and controlling floods in the region. Under this project, a dam has been constructed across the Tungabhadra river near Hospet in the state of Karnataka.
  • 💦The Srisailam Project– Under the project, a large dam has been constructed across the Krishna river in Kurnool district in the state of Andhra Pradesh. It has created a reservoir named as Srisailam Sagar or Neelam Sanjjeva Reddy Sagar.
  • 💦The Nagarjuna Sagar Dam– The construction of the dam started in 1950, being one of the earliest large infrastructure project of India, aimed at bringing Green Revolution. The dam has been constructed across the Krishna river straddling the borders of Nalgonda and Guntur districts.
  • 💦The Prakasam Barrage– The Prakasam Barrage was conceptualised by Major Cotton of the East India Company. It is constructed across the Krishna river near Vijayawada in the state of Andhra Pradesh.
  • 💦The Ghatprabha Project– The project has been executed across the Ghatprabha river near Chandgad in Kolhapur district in the state of Maharashtra in the Krishna river basin.
  • 💦The Bhima Project– The project has been executed across the Bhima river in Solapur district in the state of Maharashtra in the Krishna river basin.

⚖️ Krishna Water sharing dispute among Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana.

The Cauvery River System

• The Cauvery is also known as Dakshin Ganga.
• It originates from Talakaveri located in the Western Ghats.
• It is a famous pilgrimage and tourist place in the Kodagu district of Karnataka.
• The headwaters of the river are in the Western Ghats range of Karnataka state, and from Karnataka through Tamil Nadu.
• The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. The river supports irrigation for agriculture and is considered as a means of support of the ancient kingdoms and modern cities of South India.
• The river has many tributaries called Arkavathy, Shimsha, Hemavati, Kapila, Shimsha, Honnuhole, Amaravati, Lakshmana Kabini, Lokapavani, Bhavani, Noyyal, and Tirtha.

Major River Valley Projects associated with Kaveri River

• During the pre-plan period many projects were completed in this basin which included Krishnarajasagar in Karnataka, Mettur dam and Cauvery delta system in Tamil Nadu.
• Lower Bhavani, Hemavati, Harangi, Kabini are important projects completed during the plan period.

⚖️ Water sharing dispute among Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Puducherry.

The Mahanadi River System

• The Mahanadi originates from the Satpura Range of central India and it is a river in eastern India.
• It flows east to the Bay of Bengal. The river drains of the state of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Orissa.
• The largest dam, the Hirakud Dam is built on the river.

Major River Valley Projects/Dams/Barrages associated with the Mahanadi river system

• 💦The Hirakud Dam– It is one of the first major multipurpose river valley projects started after India’s independence. The dam aims at controlling floods in the Mahanadi basin, providing water for irrigation and municipal water supply. The dam is located near Sambalpur in the state of Odisha.
• 💦The Gangrel Dam– It is also known by the name of R.S. Sagar Dam. The dam is built across the Mahanadi river in Dhamtari district in the state of Chhattisgarh.
• 💦The Dhudhwa Dam– The dam is constructed across the Mahanadi river in Dhamtari district in the state of Chhattisgarh.

⚖️ Water sharing dispute between Chhattisgarh, Odisha.

Issues related to the Mahanadi river system

• • The Mahanadi river basin is subject to severe flooding occasionally in the delta area due to an inadequate carrying capacity of the channels. The multi-purpose Hirakud river valley project provides some amount of flood relief by storing part of flood water. However, the problem still persists and a lasting solution needs to be evolved.

Interlinking of rivers is an important topic that features in the UPSC environment section. It is also a part of the Geography segment of the UPSC Syllabus. In this article, you can read all about the interlinking of rivers in India, its issues and challenges, and also about the National River Linking Project (NRLP) for the IAS exam.

Interlinking of Rivers

The idea of interlinking rivers was first mooted by the Chief Engineer of the Madras Presidency in 1919, Sir Arthur Cotton.

• This idea was revisited in 1960 by the then Minister of State for Energy and Irrigation, KL Rao, who proposed to link rivers Ganga and Cauvery.
• The National Water Development Agency was established by former Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1982.
• In 2002, the Supreme Court asked the government to finalize a plan for interlinking rivers by 2003 and execute it by 2016.
• A task force was formed by the government for the same in 2003.
• In 2012, the SC again asked the government to start the project.
• In 2014, the Ken-Betwa River Linking Project got Cabinet approval. However, the project is yet to take off because of the opposition faced by the government chiefly from environmentalists.

What is Inter-linking of Rivers (ILR)?

The idea behind the interlinking of rivers is that many parts of the country face problems of drought while many others face the problem of flooding every year. 

• The Indo-Gangetic rivers are perennial since they are fed by rains as well as the glaciers from the Himalayas.
• The peninsular rivers in India are, however, not seasonal because they are rain-fed mainly from the south-west Monsoons.
• Due to this, the Indo-Gangetic plains suffer from floods and the peninsular states suffer from droughts.
• If this excess water can be diverted from the Plains to the Peninsula, the problem of floods and droughts can be solved to a large extent.
• Hence, the interlinking of rivers will bring about an equitable distribution of river waters in India.

National River Linking Project (NRLP)

This project envisages the transfer of water from the water-excess basin to the water-deficient basin by interlinking 37 rivers of India by a network of almost 3000 storage dams. This will form a gigantic South Asian water grid.

There are two components to this project:

1. Himalayan Component
2. Peninsular Component

Himalayan Component of NRLP

Under the Himalayan component of the NRLP, there are 14 projects in the pipeline.

• Storage dams will be constructed on the rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra, and also their tributaries.
• The linking of the Ganga and the Yamuna is also proposed.
• Apart from controlling flooding in the Ganga – Brahmaputra river system, it will also benefit the drought-prone areas of Rajasthan, Haryana and Gujarat.
• This component has two sub-components:
  • Connecting the Ganga and Brahmaputra basins to the Mahanadi basin.
  • Connecting the Eastern tributaries of the Ganga with the Sabarmati and Chambal river systems.

Peninsular Component of NRLP

This component of the NRLP envisages the linking of the 16 rivers of southern India.

• Surplus water from the Mahanadi and the Godavari will be transferred to the Krishna, Cauvery, Pennar, and the Vaigai rivers.
• Under this component, there are four sub-component linkages:
  • Linking Mahanadi and Godavari river basins to Cauvery, Krishna, and Vaigai river systems.
  • Ken to Betwa river, and Parbati & Kalisindh rivers to Chambal river.
  • West-flowing rivers to the south of Tapi to the north of Bombay.
  • Linking some west-flowing rivers to east-flowing rivers.

UPSC_Pre_MCQ
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Which of the following is/are tributary tributaries of B0rahmaputra?[2016-I] 1. Dibang 2. Kameng 3. Lohit Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a)1 only (b)2 and 3 only (c)1 and 3 only (d)1, 2 and 3
Ans…(d)The Brahmaputra enters India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh from its original source Tibet, and is joined by the Dibang River and the Lohit River at the head of the Assam Valley. It is joined in Sonitpur by the Kameng River (or Jia Bhoreli). Brahmaputra’s main left bank tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit. The important right bank tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh. Therefore, all 3 correct. Ref. NCERT Physical Geography Class11, Ch.3 Drainage system Page, 26 [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Which one of the following rivers thrice forks into two streams and reunites a few miles farther on, thus, forming the islands of Srirangapattanam, Sivasamudram and Srirangam?[1996] (a)Cauvery (b)Tungabhadra (c)Krishna (d)Godavari
Ans. (a)River Cauvery has formed three big islands on her journey from Talacauvery to join the Bay of Bengal Sea. The islands are Srirangapattnam, Shivasamudram in Karnataka and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu. All the three islands are pilgrimage centers with temples dedicated to Lord Ranganatha. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Consider the following rivers:[1996] 1.Kishenganga 2.Ganga 3.Wainganga 4.Penganga The correct sequence of these rivers when arranged in the north-south direction is (a)1, 2, 3, 4 (b)2, 1, 3, 4 (c)2, 1, 4, 3 (d)1, 2, 4, 3
Ans..(a)Kishenganga river is called Neelam river in Jammu & Kashmir. Ganga river originates from Gangotri glacier in Uttarakhand. Wainganga originates about 12 km from Mundara village of Seoni district in southern slopes of Satpura range of Madhya Pradesh. Penganga is river found in Yavatmal District of Maharashtra. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer: [1997]
List-I (Climatic conditions) List-II (Reasons)
A.Madras is warmer 1.North-east monsoon than Calcutta
B.Snowfall in Himalayas 2.Altitude
C.Rainfall decreases from 3.Western depressions West Bengal to Punjab
D.Sutlej-Ganga plain gets 4.Distance from the sea some rain in winter 5. Latitude Codes:
(a)A – 1; B – 2; C – 4; D – 5
(b)A – 4; B – 5; C – 1; D – 3
(c)A – 5; B – 2; C – 4; D – 3
(d)A – 5; B – 1; C – 3; D – 4
Ans..(c)Madras is warmer than Calcutta. Madras lies 13°08’17” N latitude which is much near to equator than Calcutta, which is 22°56’67” N. Show fall occurs in Himalayas due to its higher attitude. Rainfall decreases from West Bengal to Punjab due to distrance from sea West Bengal is near to sea than Punjab. Sutluj-Ganga plain gets some rain in winter due to western distrubance. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] The Alamatti is on the river:[1997] (a)Godavari (b)Kavery (c)Krishna (d)Mahanadi
Ans (c)The Alamatti dam is build on the river Krishna in Karnataka. It is a multi-purpose project. The water is used in canal irrigation and hydroelectric production. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Which one of the following east flowing rivers of India has rift valley due to down warping?[1998] (a)Damodar (b)Mahanadi (c)Sone (d)Yamuna
Ans (a)Damodar is a east flowing river with rift valley due to down warping. Down warp denotes a segment of the earth’s crust that is broadly bent downward. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Which one of the following statements is not true?[2000] (a) Ghaggar’s water is utilised in the Indira Gandhi canal (b)Narmada rises from Amarkantak region (c)Nizam Sagar is situated on the Manjra river (d)Penganga is a tributary of the Godavari
Ans (a)Indira Gandhi Canal originated from Harike barrage at Sultanpur on Sutlej but Ghaggar is a tributary of river Saraswati, which ends in the Thar desert. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] The correct sequence of the eastward flowing rivers of the peninsular India from north to south is :[2002] (a) Subarnarekha, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Pennar, Cauvery and Vagai (b)Subarnarekha, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari, Cauvery and Vagai (c)Mahanadi, Subarnarekha, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Pennar and Vagai (d)Mahanadi, Subarnarekha, Krishna, Godavari, Cauvery, Vagai and Pennar
Ans.(a)The correct sequence of eastward flowing river of the peninsular India from north to south is Subarnarekha, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Pennar, Cauvery and Vagai. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] What is the correct sequence of the rivers–Godavari, Mahanadi, Narmada and Tapi in the descending order of their lengths?[2003] (a)Godavari–Mahanadi–Narmada–Tapi (b)Godavari–Narmada–Mahanadi–Tapi (c)Narmada–Godavari–Tapi-Mahanadi (d)Narmada–Tapi–Godavari–Mahanadi
Ans.(b)The correct sequence of the river in descending order of their lengths are Godavari (1465 km), Narmada (1312 km), Mahanadi (858 km) and Tapti (724 km). [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Assertion (A) : West-flowing rivers of Peninsular India have no deltas. Reason (R) : These rivers do not carry any alluvial sediments.[2004] (a)Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A (b)Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A (c)A is true but R is false (d)A is false but R is true
Ans.(a)West flowing rivers Narmada and Tapti do not form delta, because topography of western peninsular India is rocky without loose sediments and no alluvial sediments carried by the rivers. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Which one of the following statements is not correct ? (a)Mahanadi River rises in Chhattisgarh [2006] (b)Godavari River rises in Maharashtra (c)Cauvery River rises in Andhra Pradesh (d)Tapti River rises in Madhya Pradesh
Ans (c)Cauvery is a river of southern India, rises on Brahmagiri Hill in Western Ghats in Coorg district of Karnataka. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] From North towards South, which one of the following is the correct sequence of the given rivers in India? (a)Shyok-Spiti-Zaskar- Sutlej [2006] (b)Shyok-Zaskar-Spiti-Sutlej (c)Zaskar-Shyok-Sutlej- Spiti (d)Zaskar-Sutlej-Shyok-Spiti
Ans.(b)The correct sequence of the rivers in India from north towards south is Shyok – Zaskar – Spiti – Satluj. Shyok flows through northern Ladakh in India. Zaskar river flows in north-eastern part of Ladakh. Spiti river is situated at Kaza in Himachal Pradesh at an elevation of 12500 feet. Satluj river rise from slopes of Kailash and flows in south-westerly direction to Himachal Pradesh & Punjab. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Assertion (A) : River Kalinadi is an east-flowing river in the southern part of India. Reason (R) : The Deccan Plateau is higher along its western edge and gently slopes towards the Bay of Bengal in the east.[2007] (a)Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A (b)Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A (c)A is true but R is false (d)A is false but R is true
Ans.(d)River Kalinadi is a west flowing river in the southern part of India. So, the assertion is wrong. Deccan Plateau has elevation ranging from 1,500 to 2,500 ft and gently slopes towards the Bay of Bengal in the east. So, the reason is correct. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Which one of the following rivers originates in Amarkantak?[2007] (a)Damodar (b)Mahanadi (c)Narmada (d)Tapi
Ans (c)The Narmada river originates from a tank 1057 m high west of Amarkantak plateau in Madhya Pradesh. River Damodar originates from Chhota Nagpur plateau, Mahanadi originates from Bastar plateau and Tapti originates from Satpura hills. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists:[2007] List-I List-II (Town) (River Nearer to it) A.Betul1.Indravati B.Jagdalpur2.Narmada C.Jabalpur3.Shipra D.Ujjain4.Tapti Code : (a)A-1; B-4; C-2; D-3 (b)A-4; B-1; C-2; D-3 (c)A-4; B-1; C-3; D-2 (d) A-1; B-4; C-3; D-2
Ans.(b) [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Consider the following pairs:[2008] Tributary River Main River 1.ChambalNarmada 2.Sone Yamuna 3.ManasBrahmaputra Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a)1, 2 and 3 (b)l and 2 only (c)2 and 3 only (d)3 only
Ans.(d)Tributaries of Brahmaputra in India the Manas, Pagladiya, Puthimari, Dhanisri, Jia Bhariti and Subansiri. Manas is a tributary of Brahmaputra Chambal is the chief tributary of Yammuna and sone is a tributary of Ganga. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Which of the following pairs are correctly matched? WaterfallsRiver[2008] 1.Kapildhara Falls:Godavari 2.Jog Falls:Sharavathi 3.Shivasamudram Falls:Cauvery Select the correct answer using the code given below: Code: (a)1 and 2 only (b)2 and 3 only (c)1 and 3 only (d)1, 2 and 3
Ans.(b)Shivasamudram falls is located on river Cauvery. Jog waterfall is the highest waterfall in India of 253 metres on Sharavathi river. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Which one of the following rivers does not originate in India?[2009] (a)Beas (b)Chenab (c)Ravi (d)Sutlej
Ans.(d)Sutlej originates from the central Sulaiman range in Pakistan. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] .At which one of the following places do two important rivers of India originate; while one of them flows towards north and merges with another important rivers flowing towards Bay of Bengal, the other one flows towards Arabian Sea?[2009] (a)Amarkantak (b)Badrinath (c)Mahabaleshwar (d)Nasik
Ans.(a)Amarkantak is the origin of River Narmada and Sone. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Consider the following statements:[2009] 1.There are no east flowing rivers in Kerala. 2.There are no west flowing rivers in Madhya Pradesh. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a)1 only (b)2 only (c)Both 1 and 2 (d)Neither 1 nor 2
Ans.(d)Three east flowing rivers found in Kerala is Kavari, Tapti, Narmada and Mahi rivers flows westward, and also flows through Madhya Pradesh. East flowing rivers of Kerala are Kabani, Bhavani and Pambar. The west flowing rivers in M.P. are Narmada, Tapti, Mahi. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] With reference to, the river Luni, which one of the following statements is correct?[2010] (a)It flows into Gulf of Khambhat (b)It flows into Gulf of Kutch (c)It flows into Pakistan and merges with a tributary of Indus (d)It is lost in the marshy land of the Rann of Kutch
Ans.(d)Luni river originates from Aravalli range and flows in south west direction through the hills and finally ends up in the marshy land of Rann of Kutch. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Rivers that pass through Himachal Pradesh are :[2010] (a)Beas and Chenab only (b)Beas and Ravi only (c)Chenab, Ravi and Satlej only (d)Beas, Chenab, Ravi, Satlej and Yamuna
Ans.(d)Rivers like Beas, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej and Yamuna passes through Himachal Pradesh [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] The Brahmaputra, Irrawady and Mekong rivers originate in Tibet and flow though narrow and parallel mountain ranges in their upper reaches. Of these rivers, Brahmaputra makes a “U” turn in its course to flow into India. This “U” turn is due to [2011 – I] (a) Uplift of folded Himalayan series (b) Syntaxial bending of geologically young Himalayas (c) Geo-tectonic disturbance in the tertiary folded mountain chains (d) Both (a) and (b) above
Ans.(b)Brahamputra originates near Mt. Kailash and is known to take a U turn near Mount Namcha Barwa. This U turn is also known as Great Bend. The U Turn is because of the 180° bend of the Himalayan structural trends. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] The Narmada river flows to the west, while most other large peninsular rivers flow to the east. Why?[2013 – I] 1.It occupies a linear rift valley. 2.It flows between the Vindhyas and the Satpuras. 3.The land slopes to the west from Central India. Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a)1 only (b)2 and 3 (c)1 and 3 (d)None
Ans.(a) [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Consider the following rivers :[2014 – I] 1.Barak 2.Lohit 3.Subansiri Which of the above flows/flow through Arunachal Pradesh? (a)1 only (b)2 and 3 only (c)1 and 3 only (d)1, 2 and 3
Ans.(b)Rivers Lohit and Subansiri flow through Arunachal Pradesh. River Barak flows in south Assam and Manipur. River lohit and subanseri flows through Arunachal Pradesh. Barak river flows in sourth Assam and Manipur. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] Consider the following rivers:[2015-I] 1.Vamsadhara 2.Indravati 3.Pranahita 4.Pennar Which of the above are tributaries of Godavari? (a)1, 2 and 3 (b)2, 3 and 4 (c)1, 2 and4 (d)2 and 3 only
Ans. (d)Major tributaries of the river include the Purna (South), Pravara, Indravati, Manjira River, Bindusara River, Sabari River, Wainganga, and Wardha River. Pranahita is the name given to the combined flow of the rivers Wardha and Wainganga. [/tippy]
[tippy title=“UPSC_Pre_MCQ” height=“300” width=“650”] In which of the following regions of India are shale gas resources found?[2016-I] 1. Cambay Basin 2. Cauvery Basin 3. Krishna-Godavari Basin Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans.(d)Research is under process for presence of shale gas in Cambay basin at Mehsana, Ahmedabad and Bharuch districts of Gujarat, Cauvery basin at Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu and in KG Basin at East and West Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh. Ref: As per Economic Survey 2013, page 196 [/tippy]
UPSC Mains Questions
1. What are the objectives of Ganga Action Plan? Explain in brief, the benefits of the plan. 1986
2. What Is ‘Underwater Archaeology? What important findings have been made in Indian coastal waters recently? 1987
3. Why do the rivers of the peninsular India have well defined rigid channels in sharp contrast to the Himalayan Rivers? 1995
4. Why has the Narnada River Valley Project attracted the attention of the common people? 1997
5. Describe the major characteristics of the rivers of Peninsular India. 2003
6. Why do the rivers of the west coast do not form a delta? 2006
7. Write about National Waterways. 2009
8. Wrile a note on the causes for dominant dendritic Pattern of drainage in the Gangeic plains. 2010
9. Major cities of India are becoming more vulnerable to flood conditions. Discuss. 2016

.